O}  Q 

LECTURES 

HSH 

ON 


PHARMACY 


PRESENTING  A  SERIES  OF  TWELVE  LECTURES 
IN  ACCORDANCE  WITH  THE  SEVENTH  DECENNIAL  REVISION 

OF  THE 

PHARMACOPOEIA  OF  THE  U.  S.  A., 

1890. 


BY  C  S.  N.  HALLBERG,  PH.  G. 

Professor  of  Pharmacy,  Chicago  College  of  Pharmacy,  The  School  of 
Pharmacy  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 


CHICAGO  : 

(1.    I'.   EXCKI.IIARU  &  COMPANY. 
:r>S  DEARBORN  STRKKT. 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

IRVINE 

EX  L1BR1S 

WILLIAM   BREDENBECK 


Pharmacy. 


The  generic  term  Pharmacy  includes  the  several  sciences  which  con- 
tribute to  the  knowledge  of  drugs  and  medicines,  and  the  various  arts 
requisite  to  the  practical  application  of  such  sciences  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  medicine.  Pharmac) ,  therefore,  being  a  combination  of 
science  and  art,  may  be  divided  into  two  comprehensive  departments, 
theoretical  and  practical. 

THEORETICAL    PHARMACY. 

Theoretical  Pharmacy  embraces  nearly  all  the  natural  sciences,  for 
the  reason  that  all  the  different  kingdoms  of  nature — animal,  vegetable, 
and  mineral — contribute  substances  used  in  medicine,  and  hence  the 
three  general  sciences,  zoology,  botany,  and  mineralogy. 

All  matter  belongs  to  one  of  these  three  great  divisions,  and  is  ac- 
cordingly classified  and  described  as  to  its  physical  characteristics,  or 
sensible  properties,  in  the  corresponding  sciences. 

When,  however,  we  inquire  into  the  laws  which  govern  the  charac- 
ter or  properties  of  substances,  as  related  simply  to  the  changes  in  such 
bodies,  or  to  the  origin  or  causes  of  such  changes,  when  these  do  not 
affect  the  identity  or  sensible  properties  or  constitution  of  the  matter, 
such  science  is  termed  physics  (from  fl/iysis  (lat.),  nature). 

When  these  changes  are  such  as  to  involve  the  loss  or  transformation 
of  one  substance  into  another  or  into  different  substances,  it  is  termed 
chcmistr\  (from  chymeia  (arab.),  juice,  mixture). 

-Examples  of  these  two  forces,  respectively,  may  be  illustrated  by  familiar  phe- 
nomena: A  piece  of  lime  broken  into  fragments  by  force,  the  movement  of  a  small 
piece  of  iron  toward  a  magnet,  or  that  of  a  stone  back  to  the  earth  from  which  it  had 
been  thrown,  the  floating  of  a  piece  of  wood  on  water,  and  a  thousand  and  one 
similar  incidents  of  constant  occurrence  — all  these  are  dependent  upon  or  explained 
by  physical  laws,  the  science  of  which  is  termed  physics. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  these  same  substances  are  treated  so  as  to  change  their 
composition,  as,  for  example,  when  a  piece  of  well -burnt  lime,  dampened  with  water, 
becomes  heated,  is  transformed  into  calcium  hydrate  (slakes),  and  falls  into  powder, 
which,  absorbing  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere,  is  converted  into  calcium  car- 
bonate or  chalk;  or  when  a  piece  of  iron  exposed  to  dampness  rusts,  forming  oxide  of 
iron;  or  when  sugar,  through  fermentation,  is  decomposed  into  alcohol  and  carbonic 
arid;  in  short,  whenever  the  change  affects  not  only  the  physical  characteristics,  but 
also  the  elementary  composition  of  a  substance,  it  is  called  a  chemical  change,  and  the 
science  contributing  to  a  knowledge  thereof  chemistry. 


6  THE    PHARMACAL 

The  sciences  named,  we  may  say,  therefore,  constitute  theoretical 
pharmaev;  that  is,  they  are  the  basis  of  pharmaceutical  science.  From 
this,  however,  it  must  not  be  presumed  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
all  is  essential  to  a  knowledge  of  pharmacy;  while  such  knowledge 
would  be  very  desirable,  an  intimate  knowledge  of  each  would  be  en- 
tirely too  comprehensive,  in  fact,  quite  impossible  to  attain  by  any 
one  engaged  in  active  business.  It  is  nevertheless  desirable  that,  in 
pursuing  studies  in  pharmacy,  a  limited  knowledge  of  these  shou)d  be 
had  in  a  general  sense;  zoology  and  physical  laws  will  not  come 
under  our  province,  except  as  they  may  be  necessary  to  elucidate  a 
special  subject  embraced  in  these  lectures. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  matter  should  above  all  be  mastered 
to  enable  the  student  to  understand  more  readily  and  thoroughly  the 
various  operations  and  processes  involved  in  pharmacy,  and  it  is 
recommended  that,  conjointly  with  the  first  lectures,  the  first  chapters 
in  an  elementary  chemistry  or  in  some  work  on  physics  be  carefully 
reviewed. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  furnishes  the  largest  number  of  substances 
used  in  medicine,  hence  its  importance  in  the  study  of  pharmacy. 

Botany  (from  Botance,  plants),  which  will  be  treated  in  the  Second 
Term,  is  the  science  in  which  all  plant  or  vegetable  life  and  its  parts 
are  classified  and  described. 

Mineralogy  (from  Minera,  earth,  and  logos,  science)  is  the  science  of 
minerals,  and  in  connection  with  physics,  has,  we  may  say,  established 
that  science,  which  perhaps  is  the  most  important  of  all  in  the  study 
of  pharmacy,  namely,  chemistry.  While  this  subject  is  reserved  for 
the  Second  Term,  such  reference  will  be  made  thereto  during  the  First 
Term  as  may  be  deemed  essential. 

Matcria  ^^Cl^!ca  (medicinal  matter).  This  term  is  applied  to  all 
material  or  substances  used  in  medicine,  frequently  only  to  such 
derived  from  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  when  it  is  termed 
"organic."  The  term  is  also  often  applied  to  the  general  knowledge 
and  uses  of  medicines. 

Pharmacology  (from  Fharmakon,  drug,  and  logos,  science)  is  the 
science  of  the  uses  and  properties  of  remedies;  hence,  in  one  sense,  the 
science  of  medicine. 

Pharmaeognosy  (from  Pliannakoii.  drug,  and  cogno,  to  know)  is  the 
science  ot  crude  drugs,  organic  or  inorganic,  their  identification  and 
valuation.  The  term  is  seldom  used. 

Pharmaceutical  \f>  a  term  applied  to  any  science  or  attribute  having 


SCIENCES.  7 

relation  to  pharmacy;  e.  g.,  pharmaceutical  botany,  phar.  chemistry, 
phar.  preparations,  phar.  literature,  etc. 

The  terms  p  harmacal  as  applied  to  the  attributes  of  pharmacy  and  pharmaceutical 
as  applied  to  drugs  or  their  preparations,  mark  a  distinction  very  desirable,  as  in  the 
case  of  medical  and  medicinal.  The  term  pharmacal  has  not  yet,  however,  been 
generally  accepted  by  standard  authorities. 

THK    PRACTICE    OF    PHARMACY. 

The  Practice  of  Pharmacy  embraces  the  selection,  identification, 
preparation,  preservation,  and  dispensing  of  medicines,  and  may  be 
defined  as  the  practical  application  of  the  theoretical  sciences,  or  the 
art  of  pharmacy. 

Pharmacy,  derived  from  the  Greek  pharmakon,  which  means  a  drug,  is  the  most 
popular  term  for  the  place  in  which  pharmacy  is  practiced.  The  derivation  of  drug 
is  from  the  Saxon,  the  English  dry  referring  to  organic  substances  required  to  be  dried 
before  being  used  in  medicine.  Literally  drugs,  therefore,  means  only  substances  of 
animal  or  vegetable  origin,  and  a  drug  store,  a  place  where  they  are  stored  and  sold. 
The  Apotheke  is  also  of  Greek  origin  and  has  the  same  meaning,  being  converted  into 
Botica  in  Spanish.  L'OJficin  is  the  most  common  French  term.  From  these  the 
various  titles  of  those  practicing  the  art  have  been  derived:  Pharmacist,  Druggist, 
and  Apothecary. 

The  subjects  embraced  in  the  first  three  lectures,  viz. ,  Metrology, 
Heat,  and  Solution,  are,  it  may  be  said,  the  ground-work  of  pharmacy. 
Upon  these  rest  all  the  operations  involved  in  pharmaceutical  practice, 
and  a  thorough  understanding  of  these  becomes,  therefore,  absolutely 
essential.  While  one  whole  lecture  has  been  devoted  to  each  of  these 
subjects,  the  student  is  recommended  to  still  further  pursue  their  study 
in  some  elementary  work  on  physics  or  chemistry. 

fjt     •  '££••  ft.  •/">.      **/   /i^  *i-AYMv< 

,'('.: 


Pharmacy  Laws. 


Though  the  pharmacy  acts  in  force  in  the  various  states  differ  more 
or  less  in  structure  and  detail,  they  all  have  a  common  purpose,  viz., 
to  confine  the  practice  of  pharmacy  to  such  persons  only  as  may  ap- 
pear qualified  to  perform  their  duties  intelligently,  and  with  safety  to 
the  public. 

PHARMACY    LAWS    NOT    "CLASS  LEGISLATION." 

The  impression  is  prevalent  that  pharmacy  laws  are  designed  espe- 
cially for  the  benefit  of  persons  engaged  in  the  drug  business.  No  la"' 
of  the  kind  was  ever  in  justice  enacted  upon  this  theory.  Law-mak- 
ing bodies  have  no  right  to  legislate  directly  in  the  interest  of  any 


*  PHARMACY 

special  class  or  profession  of  men  Representing  the  people  in  general, 
they  are  bound  to  consult  only  the  interests  of  the  people,  and  it  is 
this  principle  alone  which  should  dictate  the  provisions  of  all  phar- 
macy acts,  and  which  should  exclude  any  clause  not  required  for  the 
protection  of  the  public.  For  druggists  to  ask  legislation  upon  any 
other  principle  would  be  a  species  of  mendicancy  to  which  a  legislature 
could  not  yield  without  self-stultification  and  a  betrayal  of  its  trust. 

LEGISLATION    PROTECTIVE    OF    THE    PUBLIC. 

That  pharmacy  laws  are  essential  to  the  public  health  and  safety 
admits  of  no  denial.  That  incompetent  persons  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  defeat  the  purpose  of  intelligent  prescribing,  and  bring  death 
and  sorrow  to  anxious  homes,  is  self-evident;  that  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  insure  the  utmost  skill,  knowledge,  experience,  and 
conscientiousness  in  these  questions  so  closely  related  to  the  dearest 
associations  of  earth,  so  vital  to  the  preservation  of  homes,  and  to  the 
happiness  of  the  people,  will  be  universally  conceded.  Disease  too 
often  conquers,  despite  the  resistance  of  medical  and  pharmaceutical 
science;  but  who  will  say  how  many  deaths,  ascribed  every  day  to 
disease,  may  not  be  due  in  fact  to  inexperience  or  ignorance  in  our 
pharmacies?  Education  at  the  dispensing  desk  is  not  less  important 
than  at  the  bed-side.  One  should  faithfully  supplement  the  other, 
and  a  sacred  privilege  of  the  former  is  to  correct,  when  need  be,  any 
palpable  error  of  the  physician,  committed  amid  the  confusing  scenes 
frequently  occurring  in  the  sick-room. 

Hut,  we  are  told,  if  special  laws  are  necessary  in  the  case  of  drug  stores,  why  not 
in  the  case  of  grocery  stores  and  other  sources  of  food  supplies?  Is  not  food  as 
important  as  medicine,  and  is  not  the  public  able  to  care  for  itself,  and  to  avoid 
unreliable  places?  We  answer  that,  as  regards  the  ability  of  the  public  to  discrimi- 
nate, there  is  little  or  no  analogy  between  drug  and  food  stores.  A  little  experience 
by  a  person  of  average  intelligence  will  usually  assure  a  tolerably  accurate  judgment 
of  qualities  of  food,  and  if  an  error  be  made,  it  is  very  rarely  of  immediate  and 
critical  consequence.  Hut  even  the  more  intelligent  drug-store  patron,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  be  presumed  to  know  absolutely  nothing  respecting  the  nature,  qualities, 
doses,  or  compounding  of  drugs,  and,  if  an  error  be  made,  it  is  too  often  disastrous 
if  not  fatal  in  its  results.  While  a  good  law  against  adulterations  is,  therefore,  usu- 
ally sufficient  to  protect  the  public  against  unwholesome  food,  nothing  short  of  a  law 
which  shall  reach  the  </,•,/,',•;-.»-  ;'n  .-iritis,  which  shall  exclude  the  incompetent,  and 
a»un-  all  possible  skill  and  trustworthiness  in  medical  dispensing,  can  be  regarded  as 
adequate. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    LEGISLATION    TO  PHARMACY. 

Because  pharmacy  la\vs  are  not  framed  in  the  interests  of  pharma- 
cists, it  must  not  be  presumed .  however,  that  they  do  not  benefit   the 


LAWS.  9 

profession.  The  protection,  though  incidental  to  that  designed  to  be 
given  to  the  public,  is  none  the  less  valuable  and  important.  The 
discrimination  against  incompetency  and  quackery  demanded  by  the 
public  welfare  is  inevitably  associated  with  discrimination  in  favor  of 
the  educated,  the  experienced,  and  competent. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  every  reputable  pharmacist  has  a  special  personal  interest 
in  the  enactment  and  maintenance  of  pharmacy  laws.  While  they  accord  to  his  pro- 
fession a  legal  status,  honor  it  with  distinctive  recognition  among  the  learned  sciences, 
purify  it  by  rejecting  elements  which  otherwise  would  tend  to  degrade  and  disgrace, 
elevate  it  to  a  rank  of  dignity,  strengthen  it  with  possibilities  for  the  more  rapid 
development  of  its  literature,  for  the  growth  of  its  educational  institutions,  and  for 
substantial  advancement  in  efficiency — while  accomplishing  these  great  results,  these 
laws  also  confer  direct  business  advantages  by  restricting  the  number  of  druggists, 
reducing  competition,  and  thus,  by  dividing  the  trade  into  fewer  parts,  assure  to 
each  more  nearly  adequate  remuneration. 

We  repeat  that,  while  the  public  has  a  general  interest  in  pharmacy  laws  in  times 
of  sickness,  the  educated  pharmacist  has  a  special  professional  and  mercantile  interest 
in  their  maintenance  at  all  times. 

THE  STRUCTUKK  OF  PHARMACY  LAWS. 

The  precise  character  of  an  ideal  pharmacy  law  we  shall  not  attempt 
to  describe.  This  species  of  legislation  is  still  in  its  infancy,  and 
years  of  experience  will  be  required  to  develop  it,  and  to  adjust  it  to 
American  institutions.  Certain  fundamental  provisions  are,  however, 
indispensable  to  a  just  and  efficient  law: 

(1)  Its  scope  should  include,  for  reasons  previously  stated,   only 
such  departments  of  the  pharmacy  as  require  the  exercise  of  special 
professional  qualifications.      For  this  reason,  "patent  medicines.''  and 
certain  "domestic  remedies,"  the  vending  of  which  requires  no  spe- 
cial scientific  knowledge,   may  properly  be  subject  to  less  stringent 
regulations. 

In  the  event  of  legislation  requiring  that  all  proprietary  or  patent  medicines  be  sold 
under  certain  restrictions,  to  protect  the  public  against  the  indiscriminate  use  of  sub- 
stances creating  noxious  habits,  or  of  otherwise  dangerous  properties,  such  protection 
could  only  be  afforded  by  confining  their  sale  to  persons  by  education  and  training 
fitted  to  understand  the  chara  ,ter  and  properties  of  medicine.  Next  to  the  physician 
the  pharmacist  is  the  best  judge  of  the  use  as  well  as  the  abuse  of  medicines,  and  by 
virtue  of  his  position  as  dispenser  he  should,  therefore,  be  accorded  the  sole  respon- 
sibility of  selling  all  medicines,  knowledge  of  the  contents  being  invariably  assured. 

(2)  All  druggists  in  business  when  a  new  law  has  taken  effect  have, 
for  constitutional  and  prudential   reasons,  been  permitted  to  continue 
in  practice,  and  all  clerks  of  sufficient  experience  have  been  permitted 
to  continue  in  their  duties. 


io  PHARMACY    BOARDS 

(^N  The  proper  administration  of  the  law  requires  a  Board  of  Phar- 
macv  composed  of  experienced  and  thoroughly  educated  pharmacists. 
4)  In  many  states,  all  persons  desiring  to  engage  in  the  practice  of 
pharmacy  are  required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  before  the 
B<  *rd.  In  other  states,  diplomas  of  colleges  are  accepted  for  registra- 
tion in  lieu  of  examination. 

The  recognition  of  diplomas  has  been  a  hazardous  experiment  in  some  states  where 
physicians  have  insisted  on  the  recognition  also  of  medical  diplomas.  It  also  pre- 
sents difficulties  in  that  there  are  no  means  of  discriminating  against  diplomas  from 
colleges  or  schools  of  no  standing,  and  such  who  do  not  require  experience  in  prac- 
tical pharmary.  Until  the  instruction  in  the  colleges  is  more  uniform,  it  is  the  safest 
plan  to  require  all  candidates  for  registration  to  be  examined  by  the  Board. 

(5)  In  the  absence  of  a  legislative  appropriation,  it  is  clearly  good 
policy  for  the  persons  most  interested  in  maintaining  the  law — the 
druggists — to  provide  the  requisite  revenue.     The  payment  of  a  small 
fee  annually  by  all  pharmacists  registered  appears  to  be  the  most  feasi- 
ble method  for  the  purpose,  and  insures  correct  registration. 

(6)  The   penalties  for  violation  should    be   sufficiently   severe    to 
insure  respect,  and  sufficiently  certain  to  insure  prompt  conviction. 
To  insure  conviction  the  Board  of  Pharmacy  should  be  charged  with 
the  duty  of  causing  prosecutions. 

The  constitutionality  of  the  principle  embodied  in  pharmaceutical 
legislation  has  been  affirmed  by  several  Supreme  Courts,  and  prose- 
cutions under  the  various  state  laws,  in  the  absence  of  verbal  defects, 
have  quite  invariably  been  successful.  Supported  by  the  people,  the 
courts  and  the  profession,  their  foundations  are  deep,  firm,  and,  we 
may  assume,  permanent. 

State  pharmacy  laws  are  now  in  force  in  all  the  states  and  terri- 
tories of  the  Union  except  in  a  few  states,  Maryland  (except 
Baltimore) ,  Nevada,  the  Indian  Territory  and  Arizona.  Texas  has 
a  separate  Board  for  each  judicial  district. 

Several  State  Boards  recognize  the  certificates  of  other  State  Boards. 
But  in  most  states  pharmacists  registered  in  another  state  have  no 
advantages  over  an  unregistered  person.  While  this  frequently  causes 
great  inconvenience  ami  even  hardship  to  pharmacists  desiring  to 
rhange  their  location  from  one  state  to  another,  it  seems  unavoidable 
under  existing  conditions.  The  New  York  Board,  for  instance,  can- 
not afford  to  abdicate  its  authority  in  that  state  by  accepting  certifi- 
cates from  Illinois  or  Michigan,  which  would  practically  give  to  the 
latter  co-equal  authority  without  possibly  maintaining  a  co-equal 


EXAMINATIONS.  n 

standard  of  examinations.  The  only  manner  in  which  reciprocity  can 
be  properly  brought  about  is,  first,  by  making  all  laws  practically  uni- 
form in  their  conditions  for  registration;  or,  second,  that  all  Boards 
agree  upon  a  common  standard  for  examinations.  The  first  requisite 
appears  to  be  a  remote  possibility,  and  the  second  has  been  attempted, 
but  without  success. 

HOARD    OF    PHARMACY    EXAMINATIONS. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  the  standards  adopted  for  examinations  by 
State  Boards  of  Pharmacy  are  designed  with  a  view  of  determining 
whether  or  not  the  applicant  be  sufficiently  competent  to  prepare  and 
dispense  drugs  and  medicines,  and  therefore  qualified  to  conduct  a 
pharmacy.  As  this  can  only  be  determined  by  an  examination  chiefly 
theoretical  in  character,  it  is  obvious  that  practical  experience  in  phar- 
macy alone,  unless  associated  with  information  obtained  by  a  sys- 
tematic study,  is  not  sufficient  to  insure  success.  While  such  examina- 
tions may  be  largely  theoretical,  they  are  nevertheless  calculated  to 
draw  out  information  which  is  also  practical;  in  fact,  theory  and  prac- 
tice are  so  interwoven  and  interdependent  in  pharmacy  that  they  are 
necessarily  inseparable. 

Although  the  various  State  Boards  of  Pharmacy  have  individual 
standards  of  examinations,  they  all  have  a  common  basis  in  the  dif- 
ferent branches,  as  follows: 

Pharmacy.  —  Pharmaceutical  preparations  of  the  U.  S.  P.;  their  component  parts 
or  ingredients,  mode  of  preparation,  strength  and  doses;  weights  and  measures;  dis- 
pensing of  prescriptions. 

Chemistrv. — The  chemical  compounds  and  preparations  of  the  U.  S.  P.;  their 
physical  and  chemical  properties;  specific  gravities;  percentages  of  anhydrous  acid  and 
degrees  of  saturation;  preparation  of  and  tests  for  the  more  simple  compounds,  such 
as  calomel;  enumeration  and  description,  and  sometimes  distinction,  of  compounds 
from  a  certain  metal,  such  as  the  chlorides  of  mercury;  incompatibles;  poisons;  prepa- 
ration of  oxygen,  chlorine,  etc.,  involving  elementary  chemistry. 

Materia  M^Jica. — Latin  titles  for  vegetable  drugs,  and  name  of  natural  order,  with 
a  brief  description  of  their  botanical  and  physical  characteristics;  name  of  active  prin- 
ciples, their  properties  and  doses. 

Identification  <>/  Specimen.1:: 

Of  crude  drugs,  such  a>  cinchona,  columbo.  senna,  taraxacum,  etc. 

Of  chemicals,  alum,  borax,  saltpeter;  sulphates  of  iron,  copper,  xinc,  etc. 

Of  pharmaceutical  preparations  tinctures  of  opium  and  opium  camph..  ~-yrups. 
glycerin,  etc. 

A  verbal,  and  in  some  states  a  practical,  examination  is  added  to 
the  regular  written  examination .  in  order  that  the  Board  may  mo.-: 
thoroughly  satisfy  itself  as  to  the  competency  of  the  applicant. 


The   Pharmacopoeia. 


The  great  confusion  concerning  the  identity  of  medicinal  substances 
and  the  variation  in  the  strengths  of  their  preparations  caused  the 
compilation  of  certain  medical  works  at  a  comparatively  early  period 
for  the  promotion  of  a  scientific  standard  of  quality,  process,  and 
composition.  These  works  were  issued  under  medico-legal  authority, 
and  called  PHARMACOPOEIAS,  from  Pharmakon  (drug),  and  poiein  (to 
make).  The  first  book  of  this  character  was  the  Pharmacopoeia  of 
Valerius  Cordus,  published  at  Nuremberg,  Germany,  in  1546.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time  many  individual  publications  had  appeared  named 
DISPENSATORIES.  The  Dispensatories  thereafter  became  commenta- 
ries on  the  Pharmacopoeia,  including,  as  do  the  American  Dispensa- 
tories, all  information  pertaining  to  the  pharmacy  as  well  as  the  action 
and  uses  of  medicines. 

It  must  therefore  be  remembered  that,  while  a  Pharmacopoeia  is  a  standard  and 
legal  authority,  the  Dispensatories  are  private  publications,  only  to  be  used  as  refer- 
ence, and  not  intended  to  take  the  place  of  the  former. 

The  first  Pharmacopoeia  for  the  United  States  of  Arnerica  was  pub- 
lished in  1820,  in  Boston,  in  both  the  English  and  Latin  languages, 
according  to  a  draft  endorsed  by  a  convention  of  representatives  from 
the  medical  colleges  and  societies  held  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  that 
year.  Revised  editions  appeared  successively  in  1830  and  1840,  when 
much  assistance  was  rendered  by  the  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadel- 
phia colleges  of  pharmacy.  In  this  revision  the  Latin  version  was 
dropped,  and  the  process  of  displacement  or  percolation  introduced 
for  the  first  time.  Succeeding  revisions  have  appeared  since  regularly 
every  ten  years,  the  representatives  of  the  colleges  of  pharmacy  assum- 
ing practically  charge  of  the, sixth  (1880)  and  seventh  (1890)  decen- 
nial revisions;  the  representatives  of  medical  associations  and  colleges 
merely  confirming  the  work  done  by  the  pharmacists. 

There  are  about  twenty  different  pharmacopoeias,  that  of  the  United 
States  occupying  undoubtedly,  in  point  of  scientific  arrangement,  com- 
pletene-s  and  accuracy,  a  place  second  to  none. 

The  Pharmacopoeia  may  be  defined  as  an  authoritative  work  which: 
(i  )  establishes  standards  for  the  identification,  quality,  purity,  and 
strength,  and  (2)  gives  directions  for  the  preparation,  purification, 
and  preservation  of  drugs  and  medicines. 


THE   U.    S.    PHARMACOPOEIA.  13 

The  United  States  Pharmacopoeia,  1890,  became  official  January  i, 
1894,  which  means  that  it  is  at  present,  and  until  again  revised  will 
be,  the  only  recognized  standard  for  the  identification,  strength,  and 
purity  of  drugs  and  medicines  in  the  United  States.  The  require- 
ments of  the  Pharmacopoeia  are  therefore  said  to  be  official  as  to 
strengths,  tests,  etc.;  the  method  of  preparation  is  likewise  termed 
the  official  process. 

The  terms  official  and  officinal  have  been  employed  rather  indiscriminately,  but 
in  the  U.  S.  P.,  1890,  the  latter  term,  officinal,  has  been  dropped. 

THE    U.  S.   PHARMACOPOEIA   OF    1890. 

The  principal  changes  of  the  present  Pharmacopoeia  (1890)  from 
the  preceding  revision  (1880),  in  which  the  general  features  of  a 
pharmacopoeia  are  also  represented,  are  the  following: 

THE    NOMENCLATURE. 

The  Nomenclature  (from  nomen,  name,  and  callare,  to  call,  is  alpha- 
betic throughout,  and  embraces  the  following  distinctions  as  illus- 
trated in: 

Magnesii  Sulphas,          Official  Latin  Title. 
Magnesium  Sulphate,      "        English  Title. 
Epsom  Salts,  English  name. 

Bitter  Salts,        Common  name,  or  Synonym. 

In  the  nomenclature  may  also  be  regarded  the  descriptions  of  the 
articles  according  to  their  derivation: 

Chemical. — The  Chemical  Formula  according  to  the  new  notation 
and  the  Molecular  Weight. 

The  English  titles  and  names  of  chemicals  being  reversed,  that  is. 
Magnesium  Sulphate  instead  of  Sulphate  of  Magnesium;  Ferrous  Sul- 
phate instead  of  Sulphate  of  Iron,  etc. 

Botanical. — The  Latin  Title  to  be  the  genus  name  of  the  plant: 
exceptions  in  Coca  for  Erythroxylon  and  Cusso  for  the  former 
Brayera. 

The/<7r/of  the  plant  official  is  not  incorporated  in  the  title,  except 
where  more  than  one  part  of  the  same  plant  may  be  employed,  as  in 
Belladonna  Folia  and  Radix.  The  botanical  name  of  the  plant  is 
always  accompanied  by  the  name  of  the  author  (_L—  Linne)  and  the 
natural  order. 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

The  percentage  parts-by-weight  system,  was  introduced  in  the 
U.  S.  Ph.,  iSSo,  as  it  was  thought  preferable  to  the  Metric  system. 


14  PHARMACOPCEIAL   CHANGES. 

The  objection  to  weighing  liquids  were  too  great  to  be  overcome  dur- 
ing the  ten  years'  life  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80,  and  the  system  entailed 
so  great  variation  in  liquid  preparations,  on  account  of  the  difference 
in  specific  gravities,  that  it  did  not  become  popular.  It  was  an  advan- 
tage, however,  in  preparing  the  way  for  the  Metric  System,  which  was 
introduced  throughout  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '90,  except  in  a  few  instances 
where  the  advantage  of  the  percentage-by-weight  system  was  obvious. 

THE    CHANGES  IN    STRENGTH. 

These  have  been  effected  in  many  liquid  preparations  by  changing 
the  Formulas  from  parts-by-weight  to  weight  and  volume.  These 
changes  are  not,  however,  considerable,  except  in  the  general  Formulas 
for  Decoctions  and  Infusions,  in  both  of  which  the  drug  strength  has 
been  reduced  one-half;  that  is  from  10  to  5  per  cent.  Some  changes 
have  also  been  made  in  the  strengths  of  the  liquid  Acids  and  Dilute 
Alcohol. 

STRENGTH    FIXED    BY    ASSAY. 

The  alkaloid  percentage  requirements  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80,  for 
Cinchona  and  Opium,  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '90  has  extended  to  the  most 
important  preparations  of  the  latter  and  also  to  those  of  Nux  Vomica. 

The  animal  ferments,  Pepsin  and  Pancreatin,  are  also  required  to 
have  a  certain  digestive  strength. 

The  strength  of  Spirit  Nitrous  Ether  is  determined  by  gasometric 
estimation,  and  certain  organic  bodies  are  tested  by  the  determination 
of  their  optical  rotation. 

NEW    SUBSTANCES    ADDED. 

Some  thirty  Organic  substances  have  been  added,  including  many 
new  remedies,  such  as  Acetanilide,  Resorcin,  Salol,  etc.,  while  none 
have  been  dismissed.  Of  Crude  drugs  10  have  been  added  and  23 
rejected. 

Only  a  few  Inorganic  substances  have  been  added  as  against  an 
equal  number  dropped;  while  50  Pharmaceutical  preparations,  in- 
cluding the  ii  Abstracts,  have  been  replaced  by  36  new  preparations, 
in  which  there  are  10  Fluid  Extracts  and  4  each  of  Glycerites  and 
Waters. 

Altogether  there  arc  994  articles  included  in  the  I  .  S.  Ph.,  1890, 
two  less  than  in  its  predecessor. 


Metrology. 


Metrology  (from  Metron,  Gr.,  measure,  and  logos,  science,)  treats  of 
the  gravitating  force  of  a  body  called  weight;  its  extension,  bulk  or 
volume,  called  measure,  and  the  relation  of  these  to  each  other  called 
specific  gravity. 

The  weight  of  a  substance  is  the  downward  pressure  which  the  earth's 
attraction  causes  it  to  exert. 

All  bodies  attract  each  other  with  a  force  which  is  directly  in  pro- 
portion to  their  mass,  or  the  quantity  of  matter  which  they  contain, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  distances  apart.  This 
attraction  is  called  gravitation. 

Since  weight  is  due  to  gravity,  and  gravity  is  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in  the  attracting  bodies,  weight,  other 
things  being  equal,  will  vary  as  the  quantity  of  matter  varies,  and  a 
body  with  twice  the  quantity  of  matter  or  twice  the  mass  of  another 
body,  will  weigh  twice  as  much.  We  may  therefore  estimate  the 
quantity  of  matter  a  body  contains  by  weighing  it. 

But  it  must  be  distinctly  borne  in  mind  that  gravity  and  weight  are  not  the  same 
thing.  Weight  may  vary  while  the  mass  remains  unchanged.  The  weight  of  a  sub- 
stance at  the  sea-level  is  not  quite  identical  with  that  of  the  same  substance  at  a  moun- 
tain-top, for  the  reason  that  in  the  latter  instance,  being  farther  from  the  earth's 
center,  the  attraction  is  less;  and  for  the  same  reason  it  is  not  so  great  at  the  equator 
as  at  the  poles.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  weighing  a  body  in  the  air, 
the  air  has  a  buoyant  effect  and  diminishes  the  weight  of  the  body  in  the  ratio  of  the 
weight  of  the  air  which  it  displaces.  Of  two  bodies,  therefore,  containing  precisely 
the  same  quantity  of  matter,  but  the  one  a  large  body,  say  like  a  piece  of  cork,  and 
the  other  a  small  one,  as  a  piece  of  lead,  the  lead  will  weigh  the  most  in  the  air, 
although  a  mere  trifle. 

In  ordinary  weighing,  where  extreme  accuracy  is  not  required,  of 
course  no  corrections  need  be  made  for  latitude  or  distance  from  the 
earth's  surface,  but  it  is  not  uncommonly  the  case,  particularly  in 
chemical  research  and  in  weighing  very  light  bodies,  that  these  and 
the  buoyant  effect  of  the  atmosphere  must  be  taken  into  account. 

For  this  reason  the  barometric  pressure  is  often  referred  to  in  con- 
nection with  the  weight  of  substances,  and  the  standard  unit  weighed 
in  the  absence  of  air  pressure,  namely,  ///  racuo. 

Since,  also,  bodies  expand  by  heat  and  contract  by  cold,  the  tempera- 
ture must  frequently  be  taken  into  account  in  weighing  a  body. 


16  THE    BALANCE. 

The  temperature  most  commonly  employed  being  i5°C.  or  59°F. 
For  scientific  work  the  temperature  is  referred  to  4°C.,  the  maximum 
density  point  of  water. 

THE    BALANCE. 

Weighing  is  accomplished  by  arbitrarily  assuming  a  unit  of  weight, 
and  then  comparing  the  pressure  of  the  body  to  be  weighed  with  that 
exerted  by  the  unit,  by  means  of  a  balance. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  scale  or  balance  is  constructed  is  so 
simple  and  well  known  as  to  need  scarcely  any  description.  With 
the  use  of  fine  instruments,  however,  such  as  the  prescription-balance, 
it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  they  should  be  treated  with  care.  The 
more  sensitive  a  balance,  the  more  delicate  is  the  construction,  espe- 
cially of  the  knife-edges  upon  which  the  beam  rests,  and  that  of  the 
knife-edges  of  the  extremity  of  the  beam  from  which  are  suspended, 
by  means  of  wire,  the  pans. 

To  insure  accuracy  in  a  balance,  the  point  upon  which  the  beam 
rests  must  be  just  aborc  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  balance;  the  point 
of  suspension  of  the  pans  must  be  ///  a  line  absolutely  with  the  fulcrum; 
the  beam  must  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  support  the  weight  without 
bending,  and  the  arms  of  the  beam  must  be  of  equal  length. 

A  fine  balance  should  always  be  inclosed  in  a  glass  case  to  keep  it 
free  from  dust,  and  more  especially  to  protect  it  from  the  corrosive 
effect  of  acid  fumes,  etc.,  which  attack  the  steel-knife  edges,  and  thus 
impair  their  sensitiveness  and  prevent  accuracy  in  weighing. 

The  Box-Dispensing  Scale  is  constructed  upon  the  compound-lever 
principle,  and  is  more  convenient  to  use,  easier  to  keep  clean,  but 
more  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  It  answers  admirably  for  dispensing 
and  prescription  work,  but  is  not  sufficiently  delicate  for  analytic  pur- 
poses. 

The/w/.y  of  a  balance  should  always  be  allowed  to  rest,  to  prevent 
oscillating  when  not  in  use,  which  may  be  best  accomplished,  in  the 
absence  of  a  permanent  fixture  accompanying  the  balance  for  that  pur- 
pose, by  placing  one  pan  on  top  of  the  other  until  wanted.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  that  corrosive  articles,  such  as  iodine,  mercuric 
chloride  (corr.  sublimate),  and  potassium  and  sodium  bromides  and 
iodides,  etc.,  when  dispensed,  should  be  weighed  in  glass  pans,  which 
usually  accompany  the  balance,  or  in  watch  glasses  of  equal  weight. 

In  7<.i(-/x/ii//s  adhesive  substances,  such  as  extracts,  etc.,  small  pieces 
of  white  cardboard  of  equal  weight  should  be  used.  The  extract  re- 
quired is,  my  means  of  a  spatula,  placed  upon  one  piece,  while  the 


WEIGHING.  17 

other  serves  as  a  counterpoise  or  tare  upon  the  opposite  pan.  A  fine 
balance  will  remain  in  good  condition  much  longer  when  it  is  reserved 
for  weighing  smaller  quantities  only,  say  below  one  dram.  It  will  be 
found  very  convenient  to  have  a  coarser  scale  on  the  dispensing  coun- 
ter for  weighing  quantities  above  one  dram  and  for  ointments,  etc. 
A  small  box  or  vial  of  shot,  or  some  similar  substance,  should  always 
be  near  at  hand,  to  be  used  in  taking  the  tare  of  bottles  or  containers, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  weigh  fluids,  or  whenever  a  receptacle  is  used 
in  weighing. 

The  weights  used  in  weighing  are  usually  metal,  the  downward  pres- 
sure of  which  is  compared  and  marked  according  to  some  fixed  stand- 
ard. 

The}'  are  commonly  made  of  iron  and  brass.  For  delicate  pur- 
poses, such  as  weighing  with  prescription  and  analytical  balances, 
weights  are  made  of  aluminum  wire  for  prescription  scales  and  of  Ger- 
man silver  and  platinum  for  analytical  scales.  These  weights  should 
be  preserved  in  a  small  box  or  drawer,  protected  from  dust  and  from 
the  corrosive  action  of  chemicals,  which  would  impair  their  accuracy. 
They  must  be  kept  bright  and  clean  to  be  reliable,  and  for  this  reason 
should  be  handled  with  a  pair  of  light  forceps  instead  of  with  the 
fingers.  Weights  should  be  secured  from  reliable  sources,  or  tested 
as  to  their  accuracy. 

The  standard  of  the  avoirdupois  pound  may  be  obtained  (aside  from 
the  official  method  elsewhere  described)  as  follows:  A  bar  of  iron, 
one  English  yard  long,  planed  exactly  one  inch  square,  weighs  about 
10  pounds;  one-tenth  of  this  will  weigh  one  av.  pound. 

Liquids,  as  a  rule,  are  measured  while  solids  are  weighed;  neverthe- 
less, it  is  frequently  required  that  a  certain  liquid  be  weighed.  While 
the  difference  between  weighing  and  measuring  some  liquids  is  not 
very  great,  yet  with  others  it  is  considerable,  and,  without  discrimina- 
tion, it  may  frequently  produce  entirely  different  results.  [See  Specific 
Gravity.] 


Weights  and  Measures. 

WEIGHTS — AMERICAN    AND    ENGLISH. 

The  systems  of  weight  in  use  in  the  United  States  are  Avoirdupois 
and  Apothecaries'  or  Troy. 

Apothecaries'  Weight  \vas  adopted  as  the  official  standard  in  all  the 
editions  of  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia  previous  to  that  of  1880. 
Although  not  officially  sanctioned,  Apothecaries'  weight  still  remains 
in  use  in  the  prescribing  of  medicines,  owing  to  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  subdivided  into  simple  fractions.  One  troy  ounce,  equal 
to  480  grains,  is  easily  divided  by  any  even  number — 2,  4,  8,  etc. 
This  quality  is  of  great  practical  value  to  pharmacists  and  physicians. 
For  the  latter,  it  simplifies  prescribing  because  of  its  easy  division;  the 
quantity  of  a  remedy  required  for  administration  may  be  computed 
with  the  measure  of  the  solvent  very  quickly  in  simple  fractions. 

The  fluid  measure  used  in  pharmacy  can  always  be  reduced  to 
drams — the  equivalent  of  a  teaspoonful.  This  being  the  measure 
ordinarily  used  in  administering  medicines,  the  quantity  in  a  dose  is 
readily  ascertained.  When,  for  example,  one  grain  of  morphine  sul- 
phate in  one  fluid  ounce  of  water  is  prescribed,  with  directions  "one 
teaspoonful  at  a  dose,"  it  is  readily  computed  that  the  quantity  of 
morphine  in  each  dose  must  be  one-eighth  of  a  grain,  since  one  fluid 
ounce  contains  eight  fluid  drams  or  teaspoonfuls.  Should  eight 
grains  of  morphine  sulphate  in  one  ounce  of  water  be  prescribed  with 
the  same  directions  as  above,  the  pharmacist  at  once  computes  the 
quantity  of  morphine  in  each  dose  to  be  one  grain,  and  from  this 
decides  whether  or  not  the  mixture  should  be  dispensed. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  Apothecaries'  weight,  showing  the 
number  of  grains  in  each  denomination: 

Scruple.  Dram.  Ounce.  Pound. 

20  60  480  5760 

The  Troy  ounce,  though  containing  the  same  number  of  grains  as 
the  Apothecaries',  is  divided  into  20  pennyweights  instead  of  drams 
and  scruples.  Its  use  in  pharmacy  is  practically  obsolete. 

Avoirdupois  Weight  is  the  commercial  standard  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  One  av.  pound  is  equal  to  7,000  grains, 
being  1,240  grains  more  than  one  troy  pound.  Tin's  difference  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  av.  pound  contains  16  ounces,  while 


AVOIRDUPOIS   AND   APOTHECARIES'  19 

the  troy  pound  contains  but  12  ounces.  Why  should  not  the  differ- 
ence, then,  in  the  number  of  grains  in  the  two  different  pounds,  have 
the  same  relation  as  16  to  12?  If  one  av.  pound  is  equal  to  7,000 
grains,  one  troy  pound  should  equal  5,250  grains,  and  not  5,760 
grains.  Here  is  an  unfortunate  relation  existing  between  these  two 
kinds  of  weights;  while  the  troy  ounce  is  equal  to  480  grains,  one  av. 
ounce  equals  only  437^2  grains,  which  explains  the  difference  in  the 
number  of  grains  to  the  pound. 

The  odd  number  of  grains  in  the  avoirdupois  ounce,  as  compared  with  the  round, 
easily  divided,  number  of  grains  of  the  apothecaries'  ounce,  is  due  to  the  fact,  that  in 
the  Apothecaries'  the  unit  is  the  ounce,  and  from  this  the  pound  was  formed.  In 
the  Avoirdupois  the  pound  is  the  unit,  which  divided  by  16  gives  an  ounce  contain- 
ing only  437^  grs.,  as  against  480  grs.  in  the  Apothecaries'  ounce. 

The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  avoirdupois  and  apothe- 
caries' weight  with  their  respective  symbols  and  customary  abbrevia- 
tions: 

480  grs.=  ^i;  then   3    12=5,760  grains,  or  i  troy  ft. 
437/2  grs.  =  i  oz.;  then  16  ozs.  =  7,000  grains,  or  i  ft.  av. 

The  number  of  grains  in  the  various  denominations  are  as  follows: 

Dram.          Ounce.          Pound 

Avoirdupois, 43  7  y2  7,000 

Apothecaries'  or  Troy,    ....      60  480  5>76o 


Difference  in  favor  of  apothecaries',   .      .      .       42}^ 
Difference  in  favor  of  avoirdupois, 

MEASURES    OF    CAPACITY. 

The  measures  of  capacity  in  use  in  the  United  States  are  "Wine" 
and  Metric  measures. 

The  measures  of  bulk  or  volume  are  primarily  derived  from  the 
linear  system  (measure  of  length  >  and  the  system  of  weights,  '.n  turn, 
from  that  of  volume. 

One  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water,  at  its  maximum  density  a  tem- 
perature of  4°C.  ///  vacua,  weighs  252.892  grains,  and  231  cubic 
inches  is  a  measure  equivalent  to  the  U.  S.  Gallon. 

The  Gallon  is  divided  into  eight  pints;  one  pint  into  16  fluid 
ounces:  one  fluid  ounce  into  8  fluid  drams,  and  i  fluid  drain  into  60 
minims. 

The  measure  of  volume  may  therefore  always  be  compared  with  me 
weight  of  water  as  above,  the  standard  for  comparison,  thus: 

i  cubic  111^=252.892;  252.892  x  23 1=58. 4iX  grs.  =  i  Gallon 
58,418-7-8=7.302  grains=i  Pint. 

7.302  -H  1 6=4^6.  2  grain>=i  fi.  Ounce. 
4^6.2  -7-  480=0.95  grain=i  Minim. 


20  LIQUID   MEASURES. 

These  are  the  exact  weights  of  the  respective  measures  at  the  official 
temperature,  but  the  comparison  is  frequently  made  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature. Water  reaches  its  maximum  density  at  4°C.,  when  one  pint 
weighs  7,302  grains,  and  this  is  the  standard  adopted  by  the  Office  of 
Standard  Weights  and  Measures  of  the  United  States.  In  these  lec- 
tures the  round  number,  7,300  grains,  equivalent  to  one  pint,  has 
been  adopted  as  sufficiently  accurate  in  comparing  weight  with  volume. 

Measure,  in  pharmacy,  is  a  term  usually  applied  to  a  certain  stand- 
ard for  estimating  the  dimensions  of  liquids,  or  the  capacity  of  vessels 
used  as  containers.  When  of  the  larger  dimensions,  measures  ar& 
made  of  copper  or  tinned  iron-  preferably  the  latter,  because  it  is  not 
so  easily  dented  as  copper. 

In  the  dispensing  of  medicines,  graduated  glass  measures  are  used; 
they  should  always  be  tested  with  measures  of  known  accuracy,  or 
by  weighing  their  capacity  of  pure  water,  which  should  be  a  certain 
weight,  if  the  measure  be  correct.  [For  testing  any  measure  of  capacity, 
refer  to  standard  for  weights.] 

A  drop  is  not  a  minim,  and  the  measurement  of  liquids  by  drops 
does  not  give  uniform  and  accurate  results.  The  size  of  drops  varies 
greatly  with  different  liquids;  also  with  the  same  liquids,  according  to 
the  conditions  governing  the  process  of  dropping.  Among  these  con- 
ditions are,  chiefly: 

(1)  The  quantity  of  the  liquid  contained  in  the  vessel. 

(2)  The  size  and  shape  of  the  lip  of  the  vessel. 

(3)  The  rapidity  of  the  dropping. 

(4)  The  temperature  of  the  liquid. 

The  size  of  a  drop  cannot  be  estimated  by  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquid,  since  some  substances  of  great  density  (e.  ,i,r. ,  chloroform) 
yieldsmaller  drops  (300  to  i  dram)  than  those  obtained  from  liquids 
comparatively  light,  as,  for  instance,  ether. 

The  size  of  drops  of  different  liquids,  estimated  by  the  number  to 
one  fluid  dram,  may  be  generalized  as  follows: 

Drops  In  one  fluid  dram. 

Watery  solutions,  including  dilute  acids, 50  to    60 

Alcohol  and  strongly  alcoholic  liquids,  spirits,  and  tinc- 
tures   120  to  140 

Alcohol  dilute.,  including  tinctures  from  the  same,    .      .  100  to  120 
Kther  and  ethereal  prep.,  including  spirit  ether,  nit.;  sp. 

ether,  com]) 120  to  150 

( )ils,  ethereal 90  to  no 

Oils,  fixed;  glycerin, 65  to     So 

Chloroform,  200  to  ^oo 


The  Metric  System. 

The  Metric  System  of  weights  and  measures  was  originally  intro- 
duced in  France  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century;  hence  it  is 
frequently  termed  the  French  system.  Owing  to  its  decimal  parts  it 
is  often  also  called  the  decimal  system.  This  system  has  gradually 
displaced  all  the  various  systems  of  weights  and  measures  throughout 
the  continent  of  Europe,  being  the  only  legally  recognized  system  in 
all  countries,  except  Russia,  Great  Britain,  her  colonies,  and  the 
United  States  of  America. 

Because  of  its  simplicity  in  construction,  regularity  and  convenience  in  exact  calcu- 
lations, it  has  become  the  only  system  for  scientific  work,  and  is  no  doubt  destined  to 
soon  displace  the  older  systems  in  art  and  commerce  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
Through  our  system  of  decimal  numbering:  ones,  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  etc., 
the  monetary  systems  of  all  civilized  nations  except  Great  Britain  have  also  become 
decimal  and  brought  with  them  the  metric  system. 

The  functions  of  money  and  weights  and  measures  are  so  closely  related  and  inter- 
dependent that  a  decimal  system  of  one  practically  demands  a  decimal  system  of  the 
other. 

The  decimal  system  of  money  was  one  of  the  privileges  accorded  the  people  of  the 
United  States  by  early  adoption,  but  while  adopting  this  great  improvement  over  the 
old  English  pound,  shilling,  and  pence,  the  old  English  weights  and  measures,  based 
on  the  penny-system,  were  unfortunately  retained. 

The  U.  S.  Government  in  1867  made  the  Metric  system  obligatory 
in  the  three  branches  of  its  medical  service — the  Army,  Navy,  and 
Marine  Hospital — and  also  legally  permissible  throughout  the  Union, 
but  all  efforts  to  make  it  obligatory  in  the  various  states  have  so  far 
proved  futile. 

There  is  some  excuse  for  retaining  the  old  systems  in  Great  Britain, 
but  none  whatever  in  the  United  States  with  its  decimal  proportions  of 
the  dollar,  the  dime,  and  the  cent,  based  upon  the  same  principle  as 
that  of  the  Metric  system. 

Although  employed  in  medicine  to  some  extent  since  1867,  the 
first  important  attempt  to  introduce  the  Metric  system  was  when  t he- 
National  Pharmacopceial  Convention  of  iSSo  instructed  the  com- 
mittee to  revise  the  sixth  decennial  revision  of  the  U.  S.  Pharma- 
copoeia in  accordance  with  the  Metric  system.  The  committee,  fearful 
of  the  radical  change  involved,  disregarded  the  instructions,  and  com- 
promised by  employing  the  system  of  decimal  parts  or  proportions  by- 
weight,  instead. 


22  THE    METRIC   SYSTEM. 

The  introduction  of  this  system,  whereby  all  liquids  as  well  as  solids  were  directed 
by  weight,  was  a  greater  innovation  and  caused  more  variation  and  inconvenience 
than  if  the  Metric  system,  in  which  the  familiar  method  of  weighing  solids  and 
measuring  liquids  has  been  retained,  had  been  adopted  throughout. 

The  variation  was  so  great,  in  fact,  that  in  the  case  of  Fluid  Extracts  the  Metric 
system  had  to  be  employed. 

This  attempt,  however,  made  the  introduction  of  the  Metric  system 
comparatively  easy,  and  the  next  Pharmacopceial  Convention  unani- 
mously decided  that  the  seventh  decennial  revision  of  the  U.  S.  Ph. 
(1890)  be  based  upon  the  Metric  system. 

The  objections  to  the  adoption  of  the  Metric  system  are:  first,  that  being  decimal  it 
cannot  be  as  easily  divided  on  the  binominal  plan  (halves,  quarters,  eighths,  etc. ,  )  as  the 
older  systems  based  on  this  principle  of  bisection.  This  weakness  adheres  also  to  the 
Dollar,  which  cannot  be  bisected  further  than  the  quarter,  but  an  inconvenience  more 
apparent  than  real  and  easily  overcome. 

The  second  objection  made  to  it  is,  that  the  Orthography,  the  designation  of  the 
respective  quantities,  is  not  distinct,  and  is  liable  to  create  confusion  and  cause  error. 
In  this  respect  it  shares  the  objection  to  all  systems.  Carelessness  in  designating 
quantities,  or  ignorance  in  their  interpretation,  is  common  in  the  older  systems. 
Thorough  familiarity  with  the  principle,  and  accurate  knowledge  and  care  in  its  use, 
will  demonstrate  the  Metric  svstcm  as  free  from  error  as  any  of  the  older  systems. 

The  Metric  System  is  based  upon  the  meter,  which  is  the  standard 
//;///  of  linear  measurement,  being  the  ten-millionth  part  of  one-fourth 
of  the  circumference  of  the  Earth  (the  quadrant).  It  is,  therefore, 
the  one  forty-millionth  part  of  the  entire  circumference  of  the 
Earth  taken  around  the  Poles. ,  measured  by  the  meridian  and  not  by 
the  equator. 

One  meter  is  equal  to  39.37  +  inches. 

The  standard  unit  of  liquid  measure  (termed  the  Liter)  is  the  cube  of 
one-tenth  of  the  meter,  or  cubic  decimeter,  and  one-thousandth  part 
of  it,  or  the  cube  of  one-hundredth  of  the  meter  is  one  cubic  centimeter. 

The  unit  of  weight  is  the  weight  of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  pure 
Water  in  vactio  at  its  maximum  density,  termed  gramme  or  Gram, 
equivalent  to  15.432  grains. 

The  unit  Grain  (written  with  a  period  immediately  following,  thus, 
i.)  is  divided  or  multiplied  to  express  smaller  or  larger  denominational 
quantities  respectively,  by  simply  moving  the  decimal  point  to  the 
/'//  or  to  the  right. 

To  designate  the  quantities  thus  obtained,  Latin  prefixes  are 
used  to  describe  those  less  than  one  Gram,  and  Greek  those  larger 
than  one  (Irani — the  latter  also  being  written  with  a  Capital  letter, 
:i^  shown  in  tin-  following,  with  their  equivalents: 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


23 


i.       =i  Gram,  (abbrev.  Gm.)     .     . 

.1     =i  decigram,  (     "        dcg.,  or  dg.) 

.01   =i  centigram,  (     "        cntg.,  or  eg.) 

.ooi=:i  milligram,  (      "        rng-)  •     • 


i.  =  i  Gram,  (abbrev.  Gm.)  . 

io.  =  r  Dekagram,   (       "       Dg.)    . 


i  oo.  =  i  Hectogram,  ( 
1000.  =  i  Kilogram,     ( 

ioooo.  =  i  Myriagram,  ( 


Grains. 
=  i5-432 

=  1-543 
=  0.154 
=  0.015 

Grains. 

=         I5-432 
=       154.32 

=    I543-2 


Hg.  or  Hecto.J 
Kg.  or  Kilo.)        =15432. 
=2  fos.  3Oz.  av.,  120  grains. 
Mg.)    .      .  =  154320.  grains. 
=  22  fos.  av.  320  grains. 


TABLE    OF    METRIC    WEIGHTS. 

i  milligram     r=o.ooi  gram. 

10  milligrams  =         i  centigram    =0.0  1  gram. 
00  "         =       10  centigrams  =       i  decigram  =o.igram. 

=     100  " 

i  Dekagram. 

100      "  =       10  Dekagrams  = 

1000      "  =    100  "  = 


1000 

10  Grams 


=     i  o  decigrams  =   i  GRAM. 


i  Hectogram. 
10  Hectograms=i  Kilo. 


EQUIVALENTS. 

Various  methods  have  been  proposed  for  adapting  the  metric 
weights  to  our  apothecaries'  weights  used  in  prescription  writing  with- 
out entailing  calculations  in  fractions.  The  method  of  taking  32 
Grams  as  equivalent  to  one  troy  ounce,  and  30  C.  c.,  or  fluid  Grams, 
as  equal  to  one  fluid  ounce,  seems  to  be  the  least  objectionable.  These 
equivalents  are  shown  in  the  following: 

32  Gm.   =i  oz.;      32-^8=4.      Gm.    —  i  dram. 

30  C.  c.  —  i  fl.  oz.;  30-^8=3.  75  C.  c.  ~i  fl.  dram. 

The  exact  metric  equivalent  of  I  grain  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  unit  by  the 
Gram  equivalent  in  grains,  thus:  1.^-15.432=0.0648  gram  (or  dl/2  centigram). 

The  metric  equivalents  of  all  the  other  denominations  may  be  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing the  grain  equivalent  by  the  number  of  grains  in  one  dram;  the  number  of  drams 
in  a  troy  ounce,  etc.      The  following  exact  Gram  equivalents  are  thus  obtained: 
I  grain.        I  dram.        I  ounce  av.        I  ounce  troy.        I  Ib.  troy.        I  Ib.  av. 
0.0648  3.888  28.349  3I-I°3  373.250  453.592 

To  convert  avoirdupois  or  troy  into  metric  weights,  the  equivalent  of  the  Gram  in 
grains  —  -15.432  —  should  be  remembered,  as  it  servos  the  purpose  of  a  basis  for  ob- 
taining the  equivalent  of  all  the  higher  denominations. 


24  EQUIVALENTS. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  number  is  composed  of  the  first  five  numerals  in  re- 
versed order,  except  the  figure  I.  In  round  numbers  the  Gram  is  said  to  equal  15 
grains,  the  fraction  be  ing  dropped,  which,  multiplied  by  4,  gives  4  Grams,  equal  to  60 
grains  or  I  dram;  and  these  multiplied  by  8 — the  number  of  drams  in  one  ounce — 
give  32  Grams,  equal  to  one  troy  ounce. 

To  convert  metric  weights  into  avoirdupois  or  troy,  the  easiest  plan  is  to  multiply 
the  quantity  in  Grams  by  15,  securing  the  weight  in  grains.  This  is  then  readily 
brought  back  to  the  larger  denominations  by  dividing  it  with  the  number  of  grains 
to  the  dram,  ounce  or  pound.  For  example; 

1452.5  (Grams)  X  15=21.787.5  grains. 

21,787.5-7-7000—3  Ibs.  av.,  I  oz.  av.,  350  grains. 

With  a  small"  number,  as,  for  example,  24  Grams,  this  calculation  may  readily  be 
made  mentally  by  adding  one-half  of  the  number  to  the  original  and  then  taking  it  ten- 
fold, thus;  24  Grams: 

24-1-12=36;  36  X  10=360  grains. 

The  Liter  is  equivalent  to  34  fl.  ounces,  half  a  Liter  approximating  one  Pint, 
sometimes  called  a  metric  pint  (17  fl.  ozs. ).  The  division  or  multiples  of  the  Liter 
are  not  used,  all  fractions  of  the  Liter  being  expressed  in  Cubic  centimeters  (C.C. ). 

The  equivalent  of  the  Meter  is  nearly  40  inches,  from  which  the  divisions  may 
easily  be  rendered  as  follows: 

I  decimeter,  4  in.;  I  Centimeter,  Cm.,  0.4  in.;   I  Millimeter,  mm.,  0.04  (^5)  inch. 

For  further  comparison  of  the  different  systems  of  weights,  refer  to  "Preliminary 

otes,"  page  xlvi,  and  also  Table  of  Equivalents  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  1890. 

The  advantages  of  the  Metric  system  consist  in: 

1.  Simplicity  of  construction,  abolishing  complex  tables. 

2.  Uniformity,  through  its  adoption  in  all  scientific  work. 

3.  Permanence  and  Stability  of  its  standard  unit  derived  from  the 

Earth  itself. 

4.  Facility  of  its  multiplication  and  division  by  decimal  points. 

5.  Commensurability  of  all  its  units  and  denominations  in  weighty 

volume,  linear  measures  and  our  system  of  money. 


Specific  Gravity. 


It  is  well  known  that  some  liquids  are  lighter  than  water,  /.  <?., 
ether,  alcohol,  etc.;  others  again  are  heavier,  /'.  e.  glycerin,  sulphuric 
acid,  etc.  The  weight  of  a  certain  measure  of  any  of  these  "liquids 
divided  by  the  weight  of  the  same  measure  of  distilled  water  is  termed 
the  specific  gravity  of  that  liquid. 

Thus,  if  a  bottle  hold  exactly  1,000  grains  of  water,  but  of  alcohol 
only  820  grains,  the  weight  of  the  latter  is  as  820  is  to  1,000.  Water 
being  the  standard  for  comparison,  it  is  stated  to  be  i.,  and  if  the 
weight  of  the  liquid  is  lighter  than  water,  as  in  the  above  instance,  it 
becomes  a  decimal  of  i.,  or,  in  this  example,  0.820.  If  the  bottle  is 
filled  with  a  liquid  heavier  than  water,  as,  for  example,  glycerin,  of 
which  it  would  hold  1,250  grains,  the  weight  is  compared  similarly, 
viz.,  1,000  is  to  i,  250  as  i.  is  to  1.25,  the  specific  gravity  of  glycerin. 

The  specific  gravity  (or  specific  weight)  therefore  of  a  substance  is 
its  weight  in  comparison  with  the  weight  of  a  similar  bulk  or  volume  of 
some  other  substance,  or  may  be  defined  as  the  relative  weights  of 
equal  bulks  of  different  bodies,  compared  with  some  definite  standard 
at  the  same  temperature. 

The  standard  for  comparing  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids  and 
solids  is  distilled  water  at  a  certain  temperature,  viz.,  i5°C.  (59°?.), 
U.  S.  Ph. 

For  gases  the  standard  is  Hydrogen  at  i . 

Example. — A  certain  quantity  of  glycerin  equal  in  volume  to  100 
grains  of  water  weighs  125  grains;  if  we  divide  the  weight  of  the 
glycerin  by  the  weight  of  the  water  the  quotient  will  be  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  glycerin.  Thus:  125  divided  by  100=1.25  specific 
gravity. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  TEMPERATURE. 

Since  all  bodies  expand  or  contract  with  changes  of  temperature,  it 
is  essential  in  comparing  this  difference  in  weight  that  the  temperature 
of  the  substance  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  standard  for  comparison, 
water,  viz.,  i5°C.  (59°F.),  except  in  the  case  of  Alcohol,  Wine,  and 
alcoholic  liquids  generally,  required  by  the  I  .  S.  Customs  and  Inter- 
nal Revenue  regulations  to  be  taken  at  6o°F.  (  i5-667°C.) 

Constancy  in  temperature  is  especially  to  be  observed  in  taking  the  specific  gravity 
of  liquids,  since,  with  the  exception  of  the  metals,  they  are  much  better  conductors  of 


26  IMPORTANCE   OF   SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

heat  than  solids,  and  more  readily  expand  and  contract.  Alcohol,  ether,  and  benzin, 
for  example,  increase  in  bulk  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  temperature  to  which 
they  are  exposed,  while  they  decrease  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  cold  they  are 
subjected  to. 

As  a  rule,  the  lighter  the  liquid  compared  with  water,  the  more  its 
bulk  is  changed  by  the  temperature,  e.  g.,  alcohol,  ether,  benzin.  Con- 
versely, the  heavier  the  liquid  as  compared  with  water,  when  not  below 
the  freezing  point,  the  less  its  bulk  is  changed  by  the  temperature,  e.  g., 
acids,  glycerin,  syrups. 

With  solids  these  rules  are  reversed.  Heavy  substances,  such  as 
metals,  contract  and  expand,  as  illustrated  in  iron  rails.  Light  solids 
are  scarcely  affected  at  all,  such  as  glass,  wood,  coke,  etc. 

THE   VALUE    OF    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

The  importance  of  Specific  Gravity  to  pharmacy  lies  in  the  fact  that 
through  it  the  identity,  and  often  the  strength  and  purity  of  liquids, 
may  be  determined.  Thus  the  percentage  of  Absolute  acid  in  official 
Acids,  such  as,  Hydrochloric,  Sulphuric,  etc.;  the  percentages  of  salts 
in  the  official  Solutions,  such  as  the  Solution  of  Ferric  Chloride  and 
the  amount  of  water  present  in  Alcohol,  Glycerin,  etc.,  may  be 
estimated  from  the  respective  specific  gravities.  For  this  reason  the 
sp.  gr.  is  always  given  first  in  defining  the  character  of  chemical 
liquids  in  the  descriptive  text  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.  While  not  always  of 
itself  sufficient  to  prove  the  identity,  etc.,  it  is  always  the  first  and 
essential  step,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  determination  of  the 
boiling  or  congealing  points  and  other  physical  attributes,  comprised 
in  the  term  character,  discloses  the  identity,  purity  or  otherwise  of 
substances. 

The  determination  of  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids,  although  an  operation  which 
should  be  practiced  daily  in  the  pharmacy,  is  nevertheless  a  process  seldom  attempted, 
and  even  the  subject  is  one  which  is  rarely  understood  thoroughly,  even  by  those 
regarded  as  otherwise  well  qualified.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  fact  that  no  prac- 
tical demonstration  is  made  at  the  time  the  subject  is  studied. 

There  exists  in  the  mind  of  the  beginner  an  exaggerated  idea  as  to  the  implements 
or  apparatus  required  for  its  performance,  and  as  these  usually  are  not  at  hand,  he  is 
disposed  to  content  himself  with  learning  the  rules  from  the  books,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, soon  forgets  the  principles  involved. 

This  is  entirely  wrong.  Practical  demonstration  at  the  time  is  the  only  means  by 
which  the  principle  can  be  thoroughly  understood.  While  it  is  true  that  for  great 
scientific  accuracy  delicately  constructed  instruments  are  required,  sufficiently  accurate 
results  for  all  practical  purposes  may  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  the  ordinary  apparatus 
in  every  pharmacy. 

THE    APPARATUS. 

The  necessary  apparatus  for  taking  the  specific  gravity  of  substances 


THE  APPARATUS.  27 

is  primarily  a  good  balance,  sensitive  to  at  least  i  grain,  and  accurate 
weights;  also  a  specific  gravity  bottle  of  known  capacity  by  weight  of 
water,  the  most  convenient  quantity  being  50  or  100  Grams  or  1,000 
grains.  Such  bottles,  termed  pycnometcrs,  are  in  the  market,  provided 
with  a  glass  stopper,  and  accurately  adjusted  to  hold,  when  completely 
filled,  the  exact  weight  indicated  on  them  of  distilled  water  at  the 
standard  temperature.  An  opening  barely  sufficient  to  admit  a  small 
needle  permits  the  escape  of  air,  which  may  have  entered  the  bottle 
while  l>eing  filled,  as  well  as  any  superfluous  liquid. 

In  the  absence  of  a  counterpoise,  which  usually  accompanies  the 
bottle,  one  is  easily  made  from  a  piece  of  lead  or  other  metal;  or  the 
tare  of  the  bottle  may  be  taken  with  ordinary  weights.  When  first 
procured  the  bottle  should  be  invariably  tested  as  to  its  accuracy,  by 
filling  it  with  distilled  water  of  the  proper  temperature,  then  wiping  it 
dry,  and  weighing. 

(1  lass-stoppered  one-ounce  iodine  vials  may  sometimes  be  found 
which  hold  a  convenient  volume  of  water,  and  by  making  the  incision 
lengthwise  upon  the  stopper  with  a  three-cornered  file,  an  opening  is 
produced  which  answers  the  same  purpose  as  the  orifice  in  the  more 
expensive  vials  above  described. 

Bottles  may  also  be  selected  from  the  ordinary  prescription  vials; 
for  example  a  100  or  120  cubic  centimeter  vial  maybe  filled  with 
distilled  water  at  i5°C.,  and  marked,  with  a  file,  on  the  neck  at  such 
point  as  may  indicate  a  convenient  even  number  of  Grams  of  water. 
Such  vial  is  not  as  accurate,  however,  as  the  glass-stoppered  bottles, 
nor  as  convenient,  since  it  involves  more  calculation. 

Furnished  with  any  of  these  objects,  the  veriest  beginner  in  phar- 
macy can  take  the  specific  gravity  of  any  liquid,  the  simplest  knowl- 
edge of  arithmetic  being  all  that  is  required.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  thing  sought  is  the  weight  of  a  quantity  equal  in  bulk  to  a 
certain  volume  of  water  of  known  weight,  or,  as  above  expressed,  the 
relative  weights  of  equal  volumes,  or  bulks  of  different  liquids  at  the 
same  temperature.  A  certain  volume  being  decided  upon  as  a  stand- 
ard for  comparison,  we  express  that  by  weight  of  water,  and  the  weight 
of  an  equal  bulk  of  any  liquid  is  divided  by  this  weight.  When  this 
standard  for  comparison  can  easily  be  converted  into  a  multiple  of  ten, 
the  division  is  effected  by  simply  moving  the  decimal  point  to  the  left 
or  right,  as  for  example: 

Glycerin.       Water.  Alcohol.     Water. 

1,250  -•-  1,000  =  1.250  sp.  gr.        820  -T-  1,000  =  0.820  sp.  gr. 


»8  HYDROMETERS. 

In  proceeding  to  acertain  the  specific  gravity  of  a  liquid,  the  bottle 
should  first  be  rinsed  with  a  little  alcohol,  which  volatilizes  more 
quickly  than  water,  and  leaves  the  bottle  perfectly  empty.  After  hav- 
ing ascertained  the  tem[)erature  of  the  liquid,  which,  as  stated,  should 
be  i5°C  (59°F.),  the  bottle  is  filled  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  neck,  the 
stopper  is  inserted  and  the  superfluous  liquid  displaced  by  it  completely 
removed  from  the  bottle,  which  is  then  wiped  perfectly  clean  and  dry. 
The  filled  bottle  is  then  weighed,  after  being  balanced  with  the 
counterpoise.  If  the  weight  of  the  liquid  is  1,250  grains,  the  specific 
weight  is  1.25  (1,250^-1,000).  The  weight  of  the  water,  whatever 
the  quantity,  is  always  taken  at  i,  and  the  weight  of  the  liquid,  whose 
sp.  gr.  is  sought,  is  always  in  proportion  to  this  unit. 

With  bottles  holding  500  grains,  250  or  125  Grams,  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the 
weight  of  the  liquid,  whose  specific  gravity  is  sought,  to  l,ooo  by  multiplying  the 
weight  with  the  required  multiplier  2,  4,  or  8,  respectively,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
standard  unit  for  comparison,  viz.,  I. 

HYDROMETERS. 

The  specific  gravity  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  density  of 
liquids  is  also  frequently  designated  by  the  number  of  degrees  indi- 
cated by  the  hydrometer — c.  g.,  B.°  18. 

Hydrometers  are  instruments  made  of  glass,  consisting  of  a  bulb 
filled  with  some  heavy  substance,  such  as  shot  or  mercury  (which 
maintains  the  instrument  when  immersed  in  the  liquid  in  an  upright 
position),  and  a  graduated  stem.  These  instruments  are  used  only  for 
commercial  purposes,  since  they  are  not  sufficiently  accurate  for  scien- 
tific work,  nor  is  their  use  recognized  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  except  for 
alcoholic  liquids.  They  are  designed  for  special  classes  of  liquids,  and 
named  accordingly,  alcoholometers,  acidometers,  saccharometers,  urin- 
ometers,  etc. 

Baiun e's  hydrometer  is  of  two  kinds:  (i)  for  liquids  heavier  than 
water;  and  (2)  for  liquids  lighter  than  water.  Although  they  were 
the  first  to  become  extensively  employed,  their  use  is  being  rapidly 
superseded  by  hydrometers  whose  scales  also  give  the  actual  specific 
gravities,  thereby  rendering  conversion  unnecessary. 

As  these  standards  cire  still  in  use  in  the  arts,  the  following  rules  for 
converting  them  into  sp.  gravity  are  convenient: 

For  liquids  heavier  than  water:  subtract  the  degree  of  Baume  from 
145.  and  divide  145  by  the  remainder  thus  obtained.  The  quotient  is 
the  specific  gravity. 

For  converting  the  specific  gravity  into  Baume,  reverse  the  process. 

For  liquids  lighter  than  water:    add   the  number  of  degrees  to  130, 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY   OF   SOLIDS.  29 

and  divide  140  by  the  sum  thus  obtained;  the  quotient  .s  the  specific 
gravity.  To  reduce  sp.  gr.  to  B.,  divide  140  by  the  sp.  gr.  and  sub- 
tract 130  from  the  quotient;  the  remainder  will  be  the  degree  Baume. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    SOLIDS. 

The  specific  gravity  of  solids  is  determined  by  dividing  the  weight 
of  the  substance  by  its  loss  of  weight  in  water. 

This  loss  represents  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water  and  de- 
pends upon  the  law  of  Archimedes,  viz.:  that  bodies  immersed  in  a 
liquid  are  buoyed  up  with  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  liquid  dis- 
placed. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  all  calculations  to  find  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  solids,  whether  in  mass  or  powder,  heavier  or  lighter 
than  water,  soluble  or  insoluble  in  this  liquid,  the  main  object  sought  is 
the  weight  of  a  quantity  of  water  equal  in  bulk  to  the  substance,  the 
specific  gravity  of  which  is  to  be  found. 

In  determining  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water,  the  methods 
employed  must  necessarily  vary  with  the  difference  in  the  physical 
properties  of  the  substances.  All  solids  come  under  one  of  the  follow- 
ing divisions: 

(1)  A  mass  heavier  than  water:      Divide  the  weight  in  air  by  the 
loss  of  weight  in  water. 

Example:  A  substance  weighed  in  the  air  weighs  500  grains;  its 
weight  in  distilled  water,  when  completely  submerged,  is  400,  loss 
i  oo  grains;  hence  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  substance  is  5.  ^500-^100— 5). 

(2)  Mass  lighter  than  water:      Divide  the  weight  in    air  by  the 
weight  required  to  restore  the  equilibrium  when  weighed  in  water. 

The  substance  is  weighed  with  a  body  attached  to  it  of  sufficient 
weight  to  keep  it  immersed  in  the  water;  the  heavy  body  having  first 
been  counter-poised  under  water,  in  order  that  the  conditions  shall  be 
equal. 

Example:  A  piece  of  iron,  suspended  by  means  of  a  silk  thread  or 
horsehair,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  beam  of  a  scale,  is  weighed  in 
water  contained  in  a  beaker  placed  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  full 
movement  of  the  balance.  It  is  counter-poised  by  the  necessary  weight 
placed  upon  the  opposite  pan.  A  piece  of  wood  weighing  12  grains, 
in  air,  is  attached  near  the  iron,  both  being  immersed  in  the  water, 
but  the  wood  being  lighter,  is  buoyed  up  with  a  force  equal  to  the 
liquid  it  displaces,  and  carries  the  iron  upward  to  the  surface  of  the 
liquid.  To  restore  the  equilibrium  of  the  balance  it  requires  an  ad- 
ditional weight  of  23  grains,  which  represents  the  weight  of  a  bulk  of 


30  SPECIFIC   GRAVITY    EXAMPLES. 

water  equal  to  the  bulk  displaced  by  the  wood.  Then  12  divided  by 
23=0.5217  sp.  gr.  of  wood. 

(3)  Mass  soluble  in  water:  Divide  the  weight  in  air  by  the  loss 
of  weight  in  some  liquid  in  which  it  is  not  soluble,  and  multiply  by  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  liquid. 

Example:  A  piece  of  sulphate  of  copper  weighs  300  grains  in  the 
air;  in  oil  of  turpentine  it  weighs  186  grains,  loss  114  grains;  the 
original  weight  (300)  divided  by  114,  gives  2.63,  which  multiplied 
by  0.88  (the  sp.  gr.  of  the  oil  of  turpentine  previously  ascertained), 
is  2.3144,  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  Specific  Gravity  of  Powders,  as  in  the  manipulations  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  solids  in  mass,  is  found  by  ascertaining  the  amount  of 
liquid  the  powder  displaces  when  weighed  in  a  specific  gravity  bottle. 

The  same  principles  govern  and  the  same  rules  should  be  applied  as 
with  masses,  according  as  the  powders  differ  in  physical  properties. 


Percentage  Volume  and  Weight. 

SPECIFIC    VOLUME. 

The  specific  volume  of  liquids  is  the  opposite  of  specific  gravity,  and 
is  expressed  in  inverse  ratio  to  specific  gravity. 

As  the  specific  gravity  of  a  liquid  is  the  weight  of  a  certain  volume 
of  that  liquid  divided  by  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  water,  so 
the  specific  volume  of  a  liquid  is  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  a 
given  volume  of  water  by  the  weight  of  an  eqnal  volume  of  the  liquid 
whose  specific  volume  is  sought,  thus: 

Water.  Glycerin.       Specific  volume, 

i. oo  divided  by  1.25=  .80 

The  comparison  of  specific  gravity  and  specific  volume,  which  also 
serves  to  illustrate  the  relation  that  exists  between  the  weight  and  the 
volume  of  different  substances,  may  be  shown  as  follows: 

Take  any  vessel,  preferably  a  flask  of  a  capacity  of  a  certain  round  number  of  cubic 
centimeters,  i.  e.,  1000,  and  fill  it  with  distilled  water.  If  at  its  maximum  density 
the  water  will  weigh  IOOO  Grams;  if  at  the  ordinary  temperature  it  will  weigh  a  little 
less,  because  the  water,  having  expanded,  a  certain  quantity  takes  up  more  room  than 
it  does  at  the  congealing  point. 

The  specific  gravity  and  the  specific  volume  of  water  are  therefore 
the  same,  water  being  the  unit  to  which  all  ,'umids  are  compared. 

As  observed  previously,  water  is  also  the  weight  unit  in  the  Metric 
System,  the  Gram  being  the  weight  of  one  Cubic  Centimeter  of  dis- 
tilled water.  But  water  is  the  only  simple  liquid  which  has  this 
property;  other  liquids  varying  greatly  in  density.  As  referred  to 
under  "specific  gravity,"  some  liquids  are  lighter,  and  have  a  hnver 
specific  gravity;  others  are  heavier  or  denser,  and  have  a  higher  specific 
gravity  than  the  liquid,  water,  the  unit  for  comparison  being  ex- 
pressed as  i . 

If  the  looo  C.C.  flask  be  tilled  with  Ether  it  will  weigh  725  Grams,  and  the  spe- 
cific volume  will  be:  1000-5-725=1.379;  if  tilled  with  Alcohol  it  will  weigh  820 
Grams,  and  the  specific  volume  will  he:  1000-7-820=1.220. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  flask  be  tilled  with  Chloroform  it  will  weigh  about  1,500 
Grams,  and  the  sp.  vol.  will  be:  1000-^-1500=  .666. 

With  the  use  of  the  Metric  System  the  knowledge  of  specific  volume 
has  many  applications. 

Thus,   for  example,    when   such    liquids  as  have  been  referred   to 


52  PARTS    BY   WEIGHT. 

are  sold  by  measure,  in  metric  containers  of  one  liter  (1000  C.C.), 
or  fractions,  the  weight  of  one  liter  is  known  at  once  from  the  sp.  gr. , 
i.  e. :  i  Liter  Glycerin=i,25o  Grams.  When  sold  by  weight,  the 
usual  custom,  by  availing  ourselves  of  the  specific  volume,  calculated 
beforehand  from  the  specific  gravity,  we  have  at  once  the  measure  of 
the  liquid.  For  example: 

I  Kilo.  Glycerin;=iooo  Grams;  then  IOOO-T- 1.25  sp.  gr=8oo  Cubic  Centimeters  of 

Glycerin. 

I  Kilo.  Chloroform;  1,000-7-1.50=666.6  Cubic  Centimeters. 
I  Kilo.  Sulphuric  Acid;  iooo-M.835  sp.  gr. =544.9  Cubic  Centimeters. 

With  the  old  weights  and  measures  this  comparison  is  entirely  lost, 
as  they  lack  the  beautiful  regularity  and  ratio  or  proportion  of  the 
Metric  system.  f 

Thus  the  weight  of  i  Pint  of  Glycerin  is  not  obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of 
grains  in  the  pound  (av. ),  7,000,  with  the  specific  gravity  of  the  Glycerin,  1.25,  be- 
cause one  pint  of  water  weighs  more  than  one  pound,  namely,  7,300  grains  (7,292 
59°F. )  and  the  weight  of  the  Glycerin  is  therefore  7,300x1-25=9,125  grains.  The 
smaller  denominations  are  equally  discordant,  the  grain  equivalents  for  the  ounce 
bemg:  tr.  oz.=48o  grs. ;  fl.  oz.=456-)-grs. ;  av.  oz.=437^£  grs. 

The  minim  and  the  grain  are  alike  discordant,  as  will  be  seen  by  dividing  the 
number  of  grains  in  one  pound  by  the  number  of  grains  in  one  pint,  which  gives: 
7,000-^-7,300=0.959  grain,  equivalent  to  one  minim  instead  of  one  grain. 

PARTS    BY    WEIGHT 

"Parts  by  weight"  means  the  system  by  which  all  quantities,  liquid 
or  solid,  are  expressed  by  weight.  It  always  refers  to  decimal  num- 
bers, 10,  100,  1000,  etc.,  and  is  therefore  a  percentage  system. 

Owing  to  this  fact,  it  is  in  accord  with  the  Metric  System,  and  is 
often  erroneously  regarded  as  identical  with  the  latter.  While  the 
metric  weights,  because  of  their  decimal  proportions,  are  well  adapted 
for  the  quantities  in  which  parts-by-weight  may  be  expressed,  still  any 
other  system  of  weights,  or  denominations  of  these,  may  be  used;  pro- 
vided that  the  same  unit  is  maintained  in  all  the  parts.  Thus  a 
Formula  from  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  1880,  in  parts  by  weight,  may  be  taken 
in  any  quantities  as  follows: 

Solution  of  Chloride  of  Iron.      35  "1 

Alcohol 65  I   grains,  Grams, 

|   or  drams,  etc. 

To  make TOO  j 

This  system  is  of  advantage  in  expressing  Formulas  for  mixtures  of 
soli'i  substances,  such  as  Ointments,  Cerates,  Plasters,  etc.,  but  it  is 
not  adapted  to  Formulas  for  liquid  Preparations  or  those  containing 
liquids,  such  as  Tinctures,  Spirits,  Syrups,  etc.,  because  of  the  great 


PERCENTAGES.  33 

convenience  and  general  custom  of  measuring  liquids  instead  of 
weighing  them.  But  the  greatest  objection  to  the  parts-by-weight 
systems  lies  in  the  fact  that  all  liquid  preparations  for  internal  use  are 
prescribed  and  administered  by  measure  and  not  by  weight,  and  their 
strengths  should  therefore  have  a  uniform  relation  to  the  ordinary 
liquid  measures,  viz.:  the  Minim,  Cubic  Centimeter,  fl.  Dram,  etc., 
upon  which  the  dosage  is  based. 

Thus,  in  the  former  example,  only  by  calculating  from  the  specific 
gravity  can  the  quantity  of  solution  of  chloride  of  iron  contained  in 
these  respective  measures  be  ascertained,  while  by  the  Formula  of  the 
U.  S.  Ph.,  1890,  in  accordance  with  the  Metric  System,  in  which 
the  liquids  are  measured  instead  of  weighed,  these  amounts  are  shown 
at  once: 

Tinctura  Ferri  Chloridi. 

Solution  of  Ferric  Chloride 250  C. C. 

Alcohol,  sufficient  to  make 1000  C.C. 

From  this  it  will  be  at  once  observed  that  a  certain  measure  of  the  Tincture  con- 
•elns  always  one-fourth  its  volume  of  the  solution,  i.  e. :  10  min.=2^  min.  solution; 
I  C.C.  =0.25  C.C.  solution.  This  same  uniformity  exists  throughout  all  the  liquid 
preparations  (except  in  a  few  of  the  Solutions  and  Syrups)  and  any  Tincture,  such  as 
Tincture  of  Opium  of  which  100  Cubic  Centimeters  are  made  from  10  Grams  of 
Opium,  will  represent  I  decig.  (o. i)  in  one  C.C.,  or  I  grain  in  10  minims  (approx. ) 
of  the  drug. 

The  advantages  of  this  uniformity  in  measure  have  been  so  clearly  recognized  that 
the  parts-by-weight  system  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  1880,  was  discarded  for  the  Metric 
System  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  1890,  with  the  few  exceptions  noted. 

PERCENTAGES. 

The  strength  of  many  substances  and  their  preparations  are  now 
mostly  expressed  in  percentages  (from  per  for,  centum  one  hundred) 
abbreviated  per  cent,  and  p.  c.;  also  indicated  by  the  sign  /' . 

Per  cent  is  a  decimal  proportion,  which  refers  to  the  whole  as  parts 
of  100;  just  as  of  our  money  one  cent  is  the  one-hundredth  and  one  dime 
the  one-tenth  of  one  dollar;  and  in  the  Metric  System  one  centigram  is 
the  one-hundredth,  one  decigram  the  one-tenth  of  the  Gram,  and  the 
Cubic  Centimeter  the  cube  of  one  centimeter,  therefore  the  one-thou- 
sandth of  the  cube  of  the  decimeter  or  the  Liter. 

Any  percentage  amount  is  therefore  readily  converted  into  its  respective  quantity 
in  the  metric  terms,  for  example:  One  Kilo,  of  Opium  contains  12.5  per  cent  of 
morphine.  How  much  morphine  does  it  contain?  Multiply  the  Kilo.,  first  reduced 
to  Grams,  by  the  percentage  number,  and  then  point  oti  three  figures  from  the  ris/ht  to 
represent  the  decimals  for  the  answer:  1,000X12.5=125  drams  of  morphine. 

With   the  avoirdupois   and    apothecaries'"    weights    it    is   necessary    to   reduce  '.he 


34  PERCENTAGE   SOLUTIONS. 

quantities  to  the  unit,  the  grain;  thus:   one  pound  and  a  half,  av.,  10,500X12.5= 
1312.5  grains  of  morphine;  or  10  ounces,  apoth.,  4800X12.5=600  grains  of  morphine. 
The  answers  in  each  case  should  be  transposed  to  the  respective  highest  denomina- 
tions of  the  two  systems — ounces  and  drams. 

I'KKCENTAGE    SOLUTIONS. 

Percentage  is  also  applied  to  liquids,  for  example,  to  indicate  the 
strength  of  acids,  in  anhydrous,  or  real  acid,  as  in  Acid  Sulphuricum, 
U.  S.  Ph.,  9 2 . 5  per  cent;  the  strength  of  y£ther,  96  p.  c.;  Alcohol, 
91  p.  c.,  etc.  Nearly  all  the  official  Solutions  have  their  strengths 
expressed  in  percentage. 

In  all  liquid  chemical  products  the  strength  is  rendered  in  percent- 
age by  weight,  because  percentage  means  that  all  the  component  parts 
referred  to  in  percentage  must  be  compared  by  the  same  standard  as 
the  whole.  That  is,  they  must  either  all  be  measured,  or  all  be 
weighed;  if  the  percentage  is  based  on  measure,  all  the  parts  must  also 
be  measured,  an  operation  not  practicable  with  solids.  But  as  there  is 
no  practical  difficulty  in  weighing  liquids,  particularly  on  the  large 
scale,  for  the  purpose  of  attaining  the  greatest  scientific  accuracy,  this 
basis  has  been  adopted  for  liquids,  which  from  their  character  are  not 
intended  to  be  taken  internally  without  further  preparation. 

Solution  of  Ferric  Chloride  is  not  given  internally,  but  the  Tincture,  prepared 
from  it,  is;  hence  the  convenience  of  knowing  its  strength  by  measure.  The  Solution, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  prepared  by  weight,  in  order  to  attain  its  correct  specific  gravity 
from  which  its  percentage  strength  is  chiefly  determined. 

For  pharmacal  practice  it  is  necessary  to  refer  the  percentage 
strength  of  solutions  intended  for  dispensing  purposes  to  measure; 
that  is,  solids  by  weight  and  liquids  by  measure. 

In  the  administration  of  remedies  the  physician  is  concerned  only 
as  to  the  dose  represented  in  the  ordinary  fluid  measures — minim, 
fluidram,  cubic  centimeter,  etc. 

In  preparing  solutions  extemporaneously  (as  needed),  therefore,  the 
pharmacist  weighs  the  solid  and  then  adds  sufficient  of  the  liquid  used 
(the  solvent)  to  dissolve  it,  in  order  to  make  it  up  to  a  certain  measure 
or  volume,  and  not  weight,  unless  so  directed. 

Thus,  if  I  fl.  ox.  of  a  2  p.   c.    solution  of  phenol  (carbolic   acid)  is  required,   the 

quantities  are: 

l!y  volume,  48oX-O2=9.6    grains  phenol. 

liy  weight,  456  X- 02=9. 1 2  grains  phenol. 

Here  again  the  uniformity  and  commensurability  of  the  Metric 
System  become  readily  apparent.  Any  percentage  solution  may  oc 
expressed  in  i  dram  for  each  per  cent  in  each  100  Cubic  Centimeters. 


LECTURE    I.    CONCLUDED,  35. 

Thus  250  C.C.  of  a  4  p.  c.  solution  of  Boric  Acid:  25ox-Q4=io 
Grams  Boric  Acid. 

All  percentage  solutions,  whether  by  weight  or  by  volume,  should 
be  prepared  according  to  the  Metric  System,  as  it  will  save  calculation 
and  serve  to  avoid  errors. 

Every  student  should  have  access  to,  or  supply  himself  with, 
Metric  weights  and  measures. 


Heat. 

The  subject  of  heat  is  one  of  great  importance  to  pharmacy,  be- 
cause only  by  the  right  use  of  this  agent  can  we  perform  successfully 
many  of  the  more  important  operations  involved  in  the  preparation 
and  dispensing  of  medic  inc.  15ut  in  order  to  understand  its  proper 
management,  it  is  important  to  know  something  of  its  nature  and  its 
laws.  Only  such  a  brief  treatment  of  the  subject  will  be  given  here, 
however,  as  will  have  important  bearings  on  the  practice  of  pharmacy. 

Heat  was  formerly  regarded  as  matter,  and  was  classed  along  with 
light,  electricity  and  magnetism,  as  "imponderable  matter,"  in  dis- 
tinction from  ordinary  matter,  which  is  ponderable,  or  capable  of 
being  weighed.  But  this  view  is  now  known  to  be  erroneous;  heat, 
light,  electricity,  and  magnetism  are  all  modes  of  motion,  and  heat 
may  be  defined  as  that  mode  of  motion  which  is  capable  of  producing  in 
us  the  sensation  of  warmth. 

Every  mass  of  matter  is  supposed  to  be  made  up  of  very  minute  particles 
called  tnoliciilt's  (irom  inolecnla,  Lat.,  small  matter);  these  molecules  are  not 
in  absolute  contact  with  each  other,  even  in  the  most  compact  matter,  but 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  distances  varying  under  different  circum- 
stances, and  in  different  states  of  the  same  substance;  moreover,  they  are 
in  a  state  of  vibration,  and  this  vibration  it  is  that  gives  rise  to  the  phe- 
nomenon we  call  heat.  When  the  vibration  is  slow  the  body  is  said  to  be 
cold  or  to  have  a  low  temperature;  when  rapid  it  is  said  to  be  hot,  or 
to  have  a ///<;•//  temperature.  As  there  are  no  bodies  without  molecular 
vibration  there  can  be  none  that  are  absolutely  without  heat,  and  the 
terms  heat  and  cold,  therefore,  are  only  relative,  expressing  different 
degree1'  of  molecular  vibration. 

It  is  a  great  general  law  that  masses  expand  from  an  increase  and 
contract  by  a  decrease,  in  their  temperature.  We  can  easily  under- 
stand how  this  must  be  so,  when  we  remember  that  a  number  of  mole- 
cules vibrating  with  great  intensity  will  describe  longer  distances  ami 
require  more  room  than  the  same  number  of  molecules  vibrating  with 
less  intensity,  and  therefore  describing  shorter  distances. 

The  expansion  of  Liquids  is  of  especial  importance  in  pharmacy,  since 
they  are  usually  kept  in  glass  containers,  which  are  easily  fractured  through 
the  pressure  exerted  upon  them  when  rilled  with  expanding  liquids.  The 
expansion  of  water  at  the  freezing  point  has  already  been  noted;  likewise 
such  watery  solutions  as  are  liable  to  freeze,  and  thus  expand.  Sulphuric 
acid  has  been  known  to  freeze  and  burst  the  carboy  containing  it.  Liquids 


42  CONDUCTION. 

of  low  specific  gravity  expand  quickly  through  elevations  of  temperature. 
Thus,  i.oooC.c.  of  the  following  expand  to  the  number  of  C.c.  named  for 
each  10°  C.  elevation  of  the  temperature,  viz:  Alcohol  ion,  Benzin  1013, 
Ether  1018,  etc.  ' 

Matter  exists  in  three  states,  termed  states  of  aggregation,  that  of 
solid,  liquid,  or  gas.  These  different  states  depend  upon  the  relative 
freedom  of  movement  of  the  molecules. 

In  solids  the  molecular  attraction  is  so  much  stronger  than  the  repellant 
force  due  to  the  molecular  vibration,  that  the  molecules  are  not  easily  dis- 
placed when  external  force  is  exerted  upon  them;  in  other  words,  the  solid 
condition  is  due  to  the  preponderance  of  the  force  of  molecular  attraction 
over  the  opposing  force  of  heat  or  molecular  vibration. 

In  a  liquid  the  two  forces  nearly  balance  each  other;  the  molecules  not 
being  firmly  held  in  the  embrace  of  each  other's  attraction  glide  readily  over 
one  another,  and  liquids,  therefore,  readily  take  the  shape  of  the  contain- 
ing vessel. 

In  a.gas  the  molecules  are  so  far  apart  that  they  are  wholly  unrestrained 
by  molecular  attraction  and  free  to  obey  the  repellant  force  of  heat;  there- 
fore, gases  tend  to  expand  indefinitely.  If  restrained,  they  exert  pressure 
on  the  walls  of  the  containing  vessel,  and  this  pressure  is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  impact  of  the  molecules.  If  the  walls  of  the  vessel  are  unyield- 
ing, the  elastic  molecules  rebound  without  losing  their  energy;  if,  how- 
ever, they  yield,  the  molecules  lose  a  portion  of  their  moving  power,  and 
so  the  well-known  fact  of  cooling  by  expansion  is  accounted  for. 

CONDUCTION    OF    HEAT. 

Heat  may  be  transferred  from  one  body  to  another  in  two  differ- 
ent ways: 

(i.)  By  conduction.     (2.)   By  radiation. 

(i.)  Conduction. — When  one  end  of  a  bar  of  iron  is  placed  in  the  fire  the 
heat  travels  from  molecule  to  molecule  up  the  bar  to  the  other  end;  this  is 
called  conduction.  Different  kinds  of  matter,  or  the  same  kinds  in  differ- 
ent states,  conduct  heat  with  different  degrees  of  facility.  Gases  are  worse 
conductors  than  liquids  and  solids,  because  their  molecules,  being  farther 
apart,  can  communicate  their  motion  less  rapidly  to  each  other  than  in 
liquids  or  solids. 

When  heat  is  applied  to  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  containing  a  liquid, 
the  layer  next  to  the  bottom  expands,  and,  being  lighter,  rises  to  the  sur- 
face and  a  cooler  layer  takes  its  place,  which  in  turn  is  heated,  creating 
ascending  and  descending  currents  in  the  liquid,  which  result  in  the  heat- 
ing of  the  entire  mass.  This  is  a  form  of  conduction  which  has  been 
termed  convection.  Gases  may  be  heated  in  this  way,  a  draft  in  a  chimney 
is  created  by  a  fire  in  the  same  way,  and  it  is  chiefly  by  this  means  that  the 
atmosphere  is  heated  by  the  sun's  rays.  Hut  it  is  obvious  that  solids, 
whose  molecules  are  strongly  held  by  the  molecular  attraction,  cannot  be 
heated  by  this  means. 


RADIATION.  43 

A  knowledge  of  the  leading  facts  in  regard  to  the  conduction  of 
heat  is  of  much  practical  importance  to  the  pharmacist.  Solid  sub- 
stances differ  very  widely  from  each  other  in  their  power  of  conduc- 
tivity. The  metals,  on  the  whole,  are  much  better  conductors  than 
other  solids,  but  even  metals  differ  widely  among  themselves. 

If  the  conducting  power  of  silver  (the  best  conductor  known)  be  taken  as 
too,  that  of  copper  will  be  73.6;  tin,  14.5;  iron,  11.9;  lead,  8.5;  platinum,  8.4, 
and  bismuth,  i.S.  Silver  is,  therefore,  nearly  sixty  times  as  good  a  con- 
ductor  as  bismuth,  but  bismuth  is  eighteen  times  as  good  a  conductor  as 
porcelain,  and  the  latter  is  a  far  better  conductor  than  wood.  On  a  cold 
day,  in  an  unheated  room,  the  different  objects  in  the  room  are  practically 
at  the  same  temperature,  but  the  handle  of  the  poker  feels  cold,  the  marble 
mantle  less  so,  a  chair-back  less  so  still,  and  the  Brussels  carpet  scarcely  at 
all  cold  to  the  touch.  If  the  temperature  be  very  low  in  the  room  these 
differences  will  be  very  decided,  and  yet  they  are  due  solely  to  the  very  dif- 
ferent power  these  bodies  have  of  conducting  heat  from  the  hand. 

So,  also,  on  the  other  hand,  if  a  piece  of  iron  and  one  of  soapstone  each 
be  heated  to  the  temperature  of  ioo°C.,  the  latter  will  seem  much  cooler  to 
the  touch  than  the  former,  because  it  is  a  worse  conductor.  For  reasons 
like  these,  metallic  vessels  that  arc  to  be  subjected  to  high  temperatures,  are 
provided  with  wooden  or  porous  earthenware  handles,  ice  is  wrapped  in 
woolen  blankets  to  keep  it  from  melting  too  rapidly,  or  a  hot  body  is 
wrapped  in  similar  .porous  metal  to  prevent  it  from  parting  with  its  heat 
too  rapidly;  and  for  this  reason  houses  are  built  of  wood  or  other  non-con- 
ducting material,  woolen  used  for  winter  clothing,  and  arctic  mammals  are 
provided  by  nature  with  a  covering  of  thick,  soft  fur. 

For  further  information  upon  the  subject  of  "Heat"  students  may  refer  to 
Irowbridge's  "Essentials  of  Physics,"  and  Parrish's  or  Remington's  "Phar- 
macy." 

(2.)  Radiation. — This  term  is  applied  to  that  mode  of  transference  of  heat 
derived  from  heated  objects  by  conduction  through  the  atmosphere,  as  the 
heat  from  combustion  in  a  stove,  etc. 

The  earth  heated  by  the  sun's  rays  is  also  an  example  of  radiation. 
Heat  is  found  to  travel  through  space  with  the  velocity  of  about  186,000 
miles  per  second,  and  it  is  found,  moreover,  that  air  is  not  the  medium  that 
conveys  it,  since  it  is  radiated  with  equal  facility  through  space  devoid  of 
air,  and  it  is  incredible  that  air  should  fill  the  entire  space  between  the  earth 
and  sun. 

THE    ETHER. 

As  we  cannot  picture  to  ourselves  a  force  existing  apart  from  matter,  we 
cannot  conceive  of  heat  coming  from  the  sun  to  the  earth  through  a"  abso- 
lute vacuum.  Matter  of  some  kind  must  be  the  vehicle  of  the  force.  Hence 
the  hypothesis  of  the  et/icr,  a  substance  of  exceeding  tenuity,  but  highly 
elastic,  which  not  only  fills  the  spaces  between  the  heavenly  bodies,  but 
also  those  between  the  molecules  of  all  substances.  It  is  along  this  that 
the  heat  is  supposed  to  be  propagated  in  waves  by  molecular  vibrations  of 
the  heated  body,  much  as  sound  is  propagated  in  waves  through  the  air  by 


14  THERMOMETERS. 

a  sounding  body,  or  ripples  on  the  surface  of  a  pond  by  a  stone  thrown  into 
it.  The  ether  waves  set  in  motion  by  the  rapidly-vibrating  molecules  of  a 
hot  body  can  in  turn  heat  a  cooler  surface  on  which  they  impinge,  by  setting 
its  molecules  into  more  rapid  vibration,  as,  for  instance,  the  sun's  rays  heat 
the  earth. 

The  waves  that  traverse  the  ether  are  not  all  precisely  alike.  Their  effects 
are  quite  different  in  many  respects,  although  the  only  physical  difference 
between  he  waves  themselves  seems  to  be  one  of  wave-length.  Three 
kinds  are  distinguished — dark  heat  waves,  light  waves,  and  actinic  waves. 
The  dark  waves  have  the  longest  wave-length,  possess  heating  power,  but 
do  not  affect  our  sense  of  sight;  the  light  waves  are  shorter,  affect  our  sense 
of  sight,  and  produce  also  heating  and  chemical  effects;  and  the  actinic 
waves  are  shorter  still,  do  not  affect  our  sight,  possess  little  heating 
power,  but  produce  chemical  effects. 

THERMOMETERS. 

The  extent  of  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  a  given  substance  by 
the  addition  or  subtraction  of  heat,  expressed  in  parts  or  degrees, 
constitutes  the  usual  method  for  estimating  the  degree  of  sensible 
heat  imparted  by  a  body — in  other  words,  the  degree  of  its  tempera- 
ture. 

Since  the  expansion  and  contraction  in  volume  are  constant  with  the 
changes  in  temperature,  the  extent  of  variation  may  be  best  determined 
by  the  substances  usually  employed — mercury,  because  of  regular  expan- 
sion, and  because  it  boils  only  at  a  very  high  temperature;  and  alcohol, 
because  it  does  not  solidify  at  the  greatest  known  cold. 

Thermometers  (from  Therma,  Gr. ,  heat,  and  metron,  Gr.,  measure) 
are  instruments  made  of  a  glass  tube,  with  a  bulb  at  one  end  filled  with 
mercury  or  alcohol,  the  tube  being  attached  to  a  graduated  scale;  the 
mercury  rises  and  falls  in  the  tube  as  its  volume  is  increased  by  heat 
or  decreased  by  cold. 

Unfortunately,  no  less  than  three  standards  have  been  adopted  for 
thermometers,  termed  respectively:  Reaumur,  Celsi,  and  Fahrenheit. 

In  Reaumur's  scale,  zero  is  at  the  freezing  point  of  water,  and  80° 
the  point  at  which  water  boils. 

In  the  Celsi  or  Centigrade  (from  Celsius,  its  discoverer),  the  zero 
point  is  also  that  of  freezing  water,  but  the  boiling  point  is  fixed  at 
100°. 

In  Fahrenheit's,  the  freezing  point  of  water  is  at  32°,  and  that  of 
boiling  water  is  at  212°;  hence  the  number  of  degrees  between  these 
two  standard  points  in  this  thermometric  scale  is  180,  instead  of  80° 
and  100°  in  Reaumur  and  Celsi  respectively.  The  point  32°,  taken 
for  the  freezing  point  of  water  in  Fahrenheit,  instead  of  o  as  in  the 
other  scales,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  it  was  the  lowest  degree  of 


CONVERSION. 


45 


cold  (obtained  from  a  mixture  of  snow  and  ammonium  chloride) 
known  up  to  the  time  of  the  construction  of  the  Fahrenheit  scale. 

The  Fahrenheit  thermometer  is  almost  exclusively  used  in  the 
United  States,  except  for  scientific  use.  The  Celsi  is  becoming  the 
standard  authority  in  scientific  work,  owing  to  its  centesimal  scale 
being  in  harmony  with  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  and 
is  given  the  preference  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '90.  It  will  eventually  super- 
cede  the  other  scales.  Reaumur's  is  chiefly  employed  in  Germany 
and  therefore  also  extensively  in  the  chemical  industries. 

In  converting  the  degrees  of  one  scale  into  either  ft_80°  £MQO°  ft-212° 
of  the  others,  we  must  find  a  number  which  is 
divisible  into  the  three  respective  numbers:  80, 
100,  and  180,  without  any  fraction.  Such  a  number 
is  20,  and  the  quotients  obtained,  viz.:  4,  5,  and  9, 
express  the  number  of  degrees  in  each  scale  equiv- 
alent to  the  same  degree  of  temperature.  In 
Fahrenheit,  the  32°  between  freezing-point  and 
zero  must  invariably  be  added  when  the  degrees 
of  other  scales  are  converted  into  it,  after  the  de- 
grees are  made  equivalent  to  the  proportion  just 
named. 

In  reducing  Fahrenheit  to  Celsi  and  Reaumur,  the 
32°  are  first  subtracted,  and  then  the  remaining  de- 
grees are  reduced  to  the  equivalent  proportions. 

Examples. — To  convert  15  Celsi  degrees  to 
those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5, 
and  add  32;  equal  to  59°F.  To  reduce  40 
Fahrenheit  degrees  to  those  of  Celsi,  subtract 

32,  multiply  by  5,  and  divide  by  9;  equal  to  4. 44°C.  To  reduce 
F.  to  R.,  subtract  32X4-^9-  [For  table  of  Thermometric  Equiva- 
lents, see  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia.] 

Higher  temperatures  than  300  or  4OO°C.  are  measured  by  the  pyrometer 
(from  pyr,  Gr.,  fire)  an  instrument  in  which  the  degrees  are  expressed  by  the 
expansion  of  a  metallic  rod  (platinum).  The  following  terms  are  used  to 
designate  temperatures  in  the  working  of  metals:  Cherry  red,  5oo°C.;  red 
heat,  7oo°C.,  and  white  heat,  iooo°C. 

LATKNT    HEAT. 

From  the  fact  that  the  temperature  of  a  substance  ceases  to  rise 
while  it  is  melting,  even  though  heat  still  be  applied  to  it,  we  readily 
see  that  much  heat  must  disappear  in  the  process.  This  is  said  to 
become  latent  (from  latere*  I. at.,  conceal).  Latent  heat  differs  physic- 
ally from  free  or  sensible  heat,  in  that  its  presence  cannot  be  determined 
by  the  senses  or  by  the  thermometer. 


F. 


46  PHARMACEUTICAL 

When,  however,  certain  chemical  actions  take  place,  or  the  state  of 
aggregation  changes  from  a  gaseous  substance  to  a  liquid,  or  from  a 
liquid  to  a  solid,  the  latent  heat  so-called  is  rendered  sensible . 

We  may  regard  the  particles  of  any  body  as  being  subjected  to  two 
opposing  forces— cohesion,  which  tends  to  draw  them  more  closely 
together — and  heat,  which  tends  to  drive  them  farther  apart. 

If  the  heat  be  increased,  the  body  under  its  influence  further  ex- 
pands, until  at  a  given  temperature  the  particles,  driven  still  wider 
apart,  resolve  the  substance  into  a  liquid  state;  finally,  in  the  case  ot 
many  substances,  the  heat  entirely  overcomes  the  cohesion,  and  the 
particles  fly  apart  in  the  form  of  vapor.  When  the  source  of  heat  is 
removed,  and  that  already  acquired  by  the  substance  has  been  im- 
parted to  surrounding  objects,  cohesion  again  comes  into  play  and  the 
substance  assumes  the  liquid  or  the  solid  state. 

The  heat  absorbed  by  water,  for  example,  is  expended  in  forming  it  into 
vapor;  when  such  vapor  comes  in  contact  with  a  colder  body,  such  as  air 
currents,  the  latent  heat  is  abstracted  and  the  water  resumes  its  original 
liquid  state.  When  the  vapor  is  confined  by  the  pressure  of  a  steam  ooiler 
it  may  be  heated  to  a  temperature  considerably  higher  than  the  boiling- 
point,  and  thus  possesses  still  greater  heating  power. 

STEAM. — One  cubic  inch  of  water  by  boiling  is  converted  into  about  1,700 
cubic  inches,  or  nearly  one  cubic  foot,  of  steam,  and  in  the  mere  conversion 
of  a  cubic  inch  of  water  at  ioo°C.  into  steam  at  the  same  temperature  an 
amount  of  force  is  exerted  which  is  equivalent  to  lifting  about  27,000 
pounds  one  foot  high. 

Steam,  as  a  source  of  heat,  contains  52O°C.  of  latent  heat.  By  contact 
with  a  cold  surface  it  is  condensed  to  the  liquid  form  and  this  heat  is  given 
out.  Theoretically,  steam  in  the  act  of  condensing  will  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  nearly  ten  times  its  weight  of  water  55°C.  Twenty  pounds  of 
steam  condensed  in  200  pounds  of  water  at  44°C.  will  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  water  to  ioo°C.  if  no  loss  is  sustained. 

I'HAKMACKl'TICAL    SOURCES    OF    HEAT. 

The  sources  of  heat  are  various.  One  great  source  of  heat  is  the 
sun,  and  some  is  derived  from  the  earth's  interior,  but  most  of  that 
of  terrestrial  origin  comes  from  the  transformation  of  other  forms  of 
energy;  as,  for  instance,  mechanical  energy  is  converted  into  heat 
when  a  cannon  ball  strikes  a  target,  or  when  the  brakes  are  applied  to 
a  moving  train. 

Electricity  is  converted  into  heat  when  a  strong  current  is  made  to 
pass  through  an  inadequate  conductor,  as  in  the  various  forms  of  the 
electric  light;  and  chemical  energy  is  converted  into  heat  in  all  cases 
of  combustion,  as  when  a  match  is  kindled,  or  coal  is  burned. 


USES   OF   HEAT. 


47 


In  the  practice  of  pharmacy  combustion  is  the  most  important  source 
of  heat.  The  substances  used  are  the  ordinary  combustible  materials, 
such  as  coal,  wood,  alcohol,  kerosene,  and  coal-gas.  The  best,  per- 
haps, is  coal-gas,  if  it  can  be  afforded,  as  it  is  convenient,  safe,  cleanly, 
and  heat  of  almost  any  required  degree  of  intensity  can  be  obtained 
by  means  of  it. 

The  best  gas  stoves  are  so  constructed  as  to  yield  a  nearly  colorless  flame, 
and  one  whose  heat  is  very  intense.  These  objects  are  accomplished  by 
admitting  a  stream  of  air  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  it  to  mingle  with  the 
gas  below  the  flame,' making  the  combustion  more  rapid  and  complete. 


BUNSKN  BURNER, 

Properly  regulated,  burning 

with  bright,  blue  flame. 


Bl'XSF.N    BfKNF.R, 

With  excessive  Hume. 


The  Bunsen  burner  is  constructed  upon  this  principle.  It  consists  of  a 
tube  serving  as  a  burner  whose  lower  portion  has  an  opening  closed  with  a 
ring.  By  moving  the  ring,  air  is  admitted  (which  should  mix  with  the  gas 
before  it  is  ignited)  and  serves  to  regulate  the  draft.  It  should  burn  with  a 
bluish-colored  flame,  which,  through  the  complete  combustion  of  the  gas, 
yields  but  little  light  and  no  soot.  The  highest  heat  is  given  by  the  tip 
of  the  flame. 


Vaporization. 


When  a  solid  or  liquid  body  changes  into  the  gaseous  form  it  is  sain 
to  undergo  vaporization. 

Vapori/ation  is  that  process  of  transformation  whereby  the  state  01 
aggregation  changes  into  vapor  or  gas.  This  change  is  often  effected 
by  relatively  low  temperature,  when  the  result  is  called  vapor.  Higher 
temperatures  drive  the  molecules  apart  to  their  greatest  distances,  when 
the  result  of  the  change  is  termed  gas. 

Vaporization  depends  upon  the  abstraction  of  heat  from  surrounding 
bodies,  as  in  the  transformation  of  water  into  vapor,  by  absorption  of  heat 
from  the  Earth.  This  heat,  rendered  latent  in  converting  the  liquid  into 
vapor,  is  abstracted  by  the  colder  atmosphere  in  the  upper  air-currents  and 
the  vapor  is  transformed  into  its  original  liquid  state — water,  or  if  exposed 
to  a  low  temperature  it  congeals  or  freezes  and  then  forms  snow.  This 
natural  phenomenon  of  rain  is  in  fact  the  best  practical  illustration,  not 
only  of  the  effects  of  heat  in  changing  the  state  of  aggregation,  but  also  in 
demonstrating  the  various  processes  depending  thereon.  Upon  the  general 
process  of  vaporization  the  following  pharmacal  operations  are  dependent: 

Evaporation  is  the  process  of  vaporization  applied  to  a  liquid  or 
liquid  mixture  for  the  removal  of  liquid,  either  partly  to  reduce  its 
bulk  or  volume — called  concentration — or  its  entire  removal,  so  as  to 
leave  a  solid  residue. 

Distillation  is  the  preceding  operation  extended  so  a*  to  transform 
the  vapor  into  the  liquid  state  by  bringing  it  in  contact  with  a  cold 
surface — called  condensation — and  collecting  the  liquid;  the  distillate. 

These  operations  each  have  several  modifications  as  applied  to  dif- 
ferent substances,  and  with  reference  to  the  vapori/.ed,  or  the  solid, 
substance,  being  the  object  sought  by  the  particular  method  employed, 

EVAPORATION. 

Evaporation  is  the  term  generally  applied  to  the  pharmacal  opera- 
tion by  which  a  solution  is  reduced  in  volume  or  concentrated  by 
means  of  heat. 

The  concentration,  being  due  to  the  vaporization  of  the  liquid  por- 
tion, is  hastened  by  stirring,  which  facilitates  the  evaporation  ol 
liquids  lor  two  reasons: 

(i  )  A  larger  surface  is  thereby  presented  to  the  action  of  the  heat 
and  also  to  the  action  of  the  air. 


EVAPORATION.  49 

The  greater  the  extent  of  the  surface  the  greater  and  more  rapid  the 
rate  of  evaporation. 

The  best  illustration  of  this  principle  in  practice  is  the  method  employed 
of  evaporating  thick  or  viscid  liquids,  such  as  the  so-called  Solid  Extracts. 
In  Extract  of  Malt  the  liquid  extract  is  spread  over  as  shallow  a  surface  as 
possible.  The  solutions  from  which  the  so-called  Scaled  Salts  of  Iron,  etc., 
are  prepared  are  first  evaporated  to  a  syrupy  consistence  and  then  spread  in 
thin  layers  on  glass-plates  in  order  to  remove  the  remaining  liquid.  In  this 
way  the  greatest  possible  surface  is  presented  both  to  the  source  of  heat  and 
where  the  air  comes  in  contact  with  the  vapor  and  aids  in  its  removal. 

(2)  Agitation  favors  evaporation  by  renewing  the  air  in  contact 
with  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 

The  air  above  a  vaporizable  liquid  soon  becomes  charged  with 
vapor,  and  the  evaporating  process  goes  on  slowly  unless  the  air  be 
renewed,  and  the  more  rapid  the  removal  of  the  saturated  air  the  more 
rapid  will  be  the  evaporation. 

Partly  on  this  principle  and  partly  on  the  principle  that  the  boiling  point 
of  liquids  is  lowered  as  the  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  surface  is  reduced, 
the  process  of  evaporation  in  z'acno  is  performed.  While  under  the  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure  of  15  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  water  boils  at  ioo°C. 
(2I2°F.),  when  heated  in  a  closed  vessel  and  the  air  above  its  surface  ex- 
hausted, it  boils  at  27°  or  32°C.  (3o°  or  QO°F.)  below  the  usual  temperature, 
or  about  55°C.  (132"?.).  The  process  also  has  the  advantage  that  it  permits 
rapid  evaporation  in  a  comparatively  low  temperature. 

The  following  considerations  should  also  be  observed  in  conducting 
the  process  of  evaporation: 

The  evaporating  vessel  (dish)  must  be  shallow,  so  as  to  present  as 
great  a  surface  as  possible  both  to  the  heat  and  to  the  air  which  carries 
off  the  vapor. 

The  evaporating  dishes  should  be  made  of  material  from  which  the 
residue,  if  solid,  may  be  removed  without  contamination.  For  this  reason 
porcelain  or  enameled  dishes  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  of  soft  metal,  such 
as  copper. 

The  heat  should  be  carefully  regulated  at  its  source,  to  avoid  over- 
heating the  substance. 

Vegetable  principles  are  much  more  easily  impaired  or  destroyed  by  heat 
than  inorganic  OT  mineral  substance?;  these  latter,  when  in  solution,  do  not 
require  any  special  precaution,  since  they  may  usually  be  subjected  to  great 
heat  without  undergoing  decomposition. 

In  evaporating  a  substance,  the  highest  degree  of  temperature  to  which  it 
may  be  exposed  without  injury  must  be  known,  and  the  source  of  heat  em- 
ployed accordingly.  The  so-called  Baths  are  therefore  employed  as  the 
sources  of  heat  for  evaporation,  as  by  this  means  the  temperature  may  be 
easily  regulated  and  kept  within  proper  limits. 


90  WATER-BATH. 

BATHS. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  baths  are  constructed  is,  that  all  matter 
gives  out  heat  to  surrounding  matter. 

When,  therefore,  a  liquid,  such  as  Water,  is  heated,  it  communicates 
its  heat  to  any  substance  with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  until  both 
have  the  same  temperature. 

For  the  Baths,  or  Media,  as  they  are  called,  any  substance  may  be 
employed,  but  the  following  are  those  in  use  in  pharmacy: 

Water-Bath.  —  Water  boils  at  ioo°C.  (2i2°F.)  and  through  its 
use  in  the  form  of  a  bath  any  substance  may  therefore  be  heated  to 
this  same  temperature. 


WATER  BATHS. 


WATER  BATH, 
With  Continuous  Water-supply. 


It  consists  of  two  vessels — one  fitting  within  the  other  in  such  a  manner 
that  a  space  of  greater  or  less  extent  is  left  between  them.  This  space  is 
nearly  filled  with  water,  and  the  substance  to  be  evaporated  is  placed  in  the 
inner  vessel.  It  is  evident  that  with  such  an  arrangement  the  liquid  in  the 
inner  vessel  cannot  be  heated  above  the  temperature  of  100  C.  (212  F.);  in 
fact,  in  practice  this  temperature  is  never  attained,  and  if  it  be  a  substance 
liable  to  decomposition  at  any  higher  temperature,  the  process  becomes  a 
safeguard  against  such  an  occurrence.  The  method  also  admits  of  very 
gradual  and  even  application  of  heat. 

Steam-Bath. — The  use  of  steam  heat  in  certain  forms  of  evaporation 
is  a  great  convenience,  since  it  affords  a  range  of  temperature  propor- 
tionate to  ite  pressure,  or  to  the  pressure  which  the  vessel  is  calculated 
to  sustain. 

The  vessel  or  apparatus  for  a  steam  bath  consists  of  two  pans,  riveted 
together  at  the  upper  edge — jacketed — having  an  inlet-pipe  to  admit  the 
ste?.m  into  the  space  between  the  two  pans  just  below  the  point  where  they 


OTHER    BATHS   OR   MKDIA.  51 

were  joined,  and  an  outlet-pipe  at  the  bottom,  allowing  the  escape  of  the 
condensed  steam  or  water.  Hoth  pipes  must  be  provided  with  stop-cocks 
10  regulate  respectively  the  inflow  and  escape  of  the  steam. 

Steam  may  also  be  employed  for  heating  purposes,  but  not  for  evapora- 
tion, without  being  confined,  called  "live  steam,"  by  placing  the  vessel  con- 
taining the  substance  to  be  heated  loosely  into  another  vessel  so  that  it 
rests  upon  the  rim  of  the  latter,  into  which  the  steam  is  admitted. 

The  term  "gentle  heat"  the  U.  S.  Ph.  defines  as  meaning  any  tempera- 
ture between  32  and  38°C.  (90  and  ioo°F.).  Other  terms  occasionally  em- 
ployed are  "moderate  heat"  55'  to  7o°C.  (130  to  165  JF.)  and  'temperate 
heat"  i5°C.(59°F.). 

Saline  Baths. — Saturated  solutions  of  various  salts,  in  order  to  be 
brought  to  the  boiling  point,  require  a  greater  amount  of  heat  than 
does  water.  For  example,  the  boiling  point  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
sodium  chloride  is  io<S°C.  (227°F.);  sodium  Iterate  (borax)  io5°C. 
(2  2  2°F.);  ammonium  chloride,  ii4°C.  (2 3 7° F.);  potassium  nitrate, 
H5°C.  (24o°F.);  sodium  acetate,  i24°C.  (256^'.),  and  calcium 
chloride,  xyc/C.  (354°!''.). 

The  use  of  these  baths  is  indicated  when  it  is  desired  to  heat  a  substance 
a  few  degrees  higher  than  can  be  done  by  the  water-bath,  and  also  when  a 
very  regular  heat  is  desired,  since  the  temperature  in  these  baths,  under  a 
uniform  heat,  does  not  change  so  long  as  the  water  is  replenished  sufficiently 
to  hold  all  but  a  small  portion  of  the  salt  in  solution. 

When  it  is  desired  to  heat  a  substance  above  the  temperature  at- 
tained by  the  Water  or  Saline  Baths,  and  yet  limit  the  heat  to  a  tem- 
perature between  150  and  3oo°C.  (300°  and  5y2°F.),  various  sub- 
stances boiling  at  a  high  temperature  have  been  employed.  Of  these 
the  fixed  Oils  and  Glycerin  are  objectionable  owing  to  their  decompo- 
sition. 

The  Petrolatum  or  Paraffin  Hath  should  be  used  whenever  tempera- 
tures between  the  degrees  mentioned  are  wanted. 

The  Saiiii  Hath  is  employed  when  an  extreme  heat  is  desired,  but 
when  a  naked  fire  would  not  yield  a  constant  or  regular  temperature. 

It  consists  simply  of  a  layer  of  dry  sand  placed  in  a  shallow-iron  dish, 
in  which  the  vessel  to  be  heated  is  imbeded.  A  comparatively  thin  layer  of 
sand  will  be  sufficient  to  equalize  the  heat  and  prevent  a  sudden  rise  in  the 
temperature,  which  might  result  in  fracturing  the  vessel  or  injuring  the 
product. 


Boiling. 


When,  vaporization  occurs  only  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid  the  liquid 
undergoes  evaporation,  but  when  vapor  is  formed  throughout  the 
liquid,  such  liquid  is  said  to  boil. 

Water,  on  attaining  the  temperature  of  ioo°C.  (2i2°F.),  enters  into 
a  state  of  ebullition',  a  large  number  of  bubbles  of  vapor,  or  steam,  are 
produced  in  the  part  of  the  vessel  exposed  to  the  heat,  which  rise 
through  the  liquid,  violently  agitating  it  as  they  burst.  This  is  termed 
boiling. 

The  point  at  which  this  ebullition 
commences  is  that  at  which  the  ten- 
sion of  the  vapor  becomes  sufficient 
to  overcome  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere;  hence,  if  this  pressure 
be  increased  the  boiling  point  will 
be  raised.  Thus,  the  boiling  point 
of  water  is  ioo°C.  at  30°  barome- 
ter; when  the  mercury  column  in 
the  barometer  falls,  indicating  di- 
minished pressure  of  the  air,  the 
water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature. 
This  also  explains  how  liquids  may 
be  brought  to  the  boiling  point  by 
the  removal  of  all  pressure,  as  boil- 
ing under  vacuum. 

THK    BOILING    POINT. 

The  determination  of  the  boil- 
ing point  of  liquids  is  very  im- 
portant, since  boiling  discloses 
a  physical  property  usually  de- 


pendent upon  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  the  liquid,  and  there- 
fore frequently  is  an  index  to  its 
identity,  strength  or  purity, 
is   one  of  the   characteristics   of 


BOILING. 

Showing  Vapor. 


For  this  reason  the  boiling   point 
liquids,  and  is  usually  given  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  directly  after  that  of  the 
specific  gravity. 

It  varies  considerably,  from  that  of  Ether  at  3J°C.  (99°?.)  to  that 
of  Sulphuric  Acid  at  33.S°C.  (64o°F.). 


GLASS  FLASKS.  53 

To  determine  the  boiling  point  the  liquid  is  brought  to  boiling  in  a  test- 
tube  or  other  proper  vessel,  then  inserting  a  bulb  thermometer  in  the  vapor 
just  above  the  surface  of  the  liquid  fora  few  minutes;  the  degree  of  heat 
indicated  by  the  mercury  column  after  it  has  become  stationary  is  the  boil- 
ing point  of  the  liquid. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  material  of  the  vessel  and  its  thickness, 
together  with  the  condition  of  its  interior  surface,  influence  the  temperature 
of  the  boiling  point;  thus,  water  contained  in  a  thick  porcelain  dish  will  boil 
at  io3°C.  (2i5°F.);  in  a  glass  vessel,  which  has  just  previously  contained 
sulphuric  acid,  at  io5°C.  (2i8°F.).  Owing  to  this  lack  of  uniformity,  it  is 
better  to  take  the  temperature  of  the  escaping  vapor  immediately  above  the 
liquid  rather  than  that  of  the  liquid  itself,  although  if  test-tubes  be  used  the 
boiling  point  of  the  liquid  itself  may  be  taken  with  results  that  closely  ap- 
proximate correctness. 

In  vessels  composed  of  materials  which  are  good  conductors  of  heat, 
c.  g.,  metals,  a  liquid  can  be  brought  to  the  boiling  point  much  more 
quickly  than  in  porcelain,  earthen  or  glass  vessels,  which  arc  poor  con- 
ductors of  heat.  Heat  is  more  readily  absorbed  by  substances  present- 
ing dark  and  rough  surfaces  than  by  those  having  light-colored  and 
smooth  exteriors.  A  liquid  is  therefore  more  quickly  heated  in  a 
vessel  of  unpolished  metal  than  in  one  having  a  smooth  or  brightly- 
polished  surface. 

Another  important  effect  of  heat  upon  substances  is  to  cause  them  to  ex- 
pand. The  expansion  is  greatest  in  gases,  and  least  in  solids.  Imperfect 
conduction,  in  conjunction  with  expansion  produced  by  the  sudden  applica- 
tion of  heat,  is  the  well-known  cause  of  the  breaking  of«glass  and  other  ves- 
sels of  similar  fragile  material  used  in  the  pharmacy. 

Glass-flasks  and  earthenware  vessels,  such  as  porcelain  evaporating 
dishes,  are  to  be  handled  very  carefully  for  this  reason.  Such  vessels  are 
usually  made  very  thin  in  order  to  diminish  the  liability  to  breakage  from 
sudden  and  unequal  expansion.  Heat  rapidly  passes  through  the  walls  of 
a  thin  glass  vessel,  and  no  great  strain  is  produced  upon  the  glass  by  un- 
equal expansion;  also  the  thinness  of  the  vessel  facilitates  the  rapid  and 
equal  heating  of  the  contents.  But  these  advantages  are  not  gained  with- 
out the  corresponding  disadvantage  of  rendering  the  vessel  more  liabla  to 
be  broken  by  careless  handling. 

Test-tubes  filled  with  cold  water,  owing  to  the  exceeding  thinness  of  the 
glass,  may  be  placed  directly  in  the  flame  without  much  danger  of  break- 
age; but  larger  glass  vessels,  like  Florence  flasks  and  beaker  glasses,  must 
be  heated  with  more  caution  when  filled  with  cold  liquids,  owing  to  the 
greater  thickness  of  the  material.  Porcelain  and  enameled  vessels  have  a 
decided  advantage  over  glass  vessels,  since  they  are  more  substantial,  not 
so  easily  fractured  by  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  they  withstand 
the  action  of  acids  quite  as  well  as  glass.  They  are  frequently  "cracked," 
however,  but  this  is  generally  the  result  of  attempting  to  heat  the  vessel 
first  and  then  pouring  into  it  a  cold  substance,  a  thing  which  should  never 
be  dote  under  any  circumstances. 


54 


BEAKERS  AND   TEST  TUBES. 


It  is  often  desirable  to  use  hot  water  in  cleaning  glass  bottles, 
graduated  measures,  or  other  glass  dishes.  This  operation,  unless  con- 
ducted intelligently,  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  disaster.  A  simple 
and  perfectly  safe  method  is  first  to  thoroughly  wet  the  interior  walls 
of  the  vessel  with  cold  water,  then  boiling  hot  water  may  be  poured 
into  it  without  danger  of  fracture. 

Fragile  vessels,  such  as  glass  flasks  and  beakers,  should  never  be  placed, 
when  hot,  in  contact  with  good  conductors,  such  as  counter  or  table-tops 
made  of  marble  or  metal,  since  the  rapid  abstraction  of  heat  from  a  portion 
of  the  glass,  and  not  from  the  rest,  will  produce  a  strain  which  will  almost 
invariably  result  in  fracture. 


BOILING, 
Showing  Currents. 


BOILING  IN  A  TEST-TUBE, 
Of  upper  portion  of  Liquid. 


The  tops  of  tables  used  in  the  laboratory  should,  therefore,  be  made  of 
wood,  or  some  other  non-conducting  material,  or  the  hot  glass  dish  should 
be  set  down  on  paper,  cloth,  or  some  other  soft,  non-conducting  substance, 
such  as  rings  of  rubber,  called  grommets. 

In  boiling  without  pressure  in  an  open  vessel  the  temperature  of  a 
liquid  can  never  be  raised  above  its  boiling  point,  as  all  the  surplus 
heat  received  is  employed  in  evaporating  the  water,  except  under  the 
conditions  above  noted.  When  a  closed  vessel  is  employed,  the  pres- 
sure may  be  increased  and  a  much  higher  temperature  attained. 

Advantage  is  taken  of  this  fact  in  pharmacy,  when  boiling  water  is  desired 
quickly,  as,  for  example,  in  making  decoctions  or  infusions.  The  vessel 
used  for  heating  the  water  in  such  cases  should  be  covered. 


Distillation. 


Distillation  is  the  process  whereby  a  liquid  substance  is  obtained  or 
separated  from  other  substances  by  means  of  evaporation  and  condensa- 
tion. The  product  is  termed  a  distillate. 

The  vaporization  of  a  liquid  for  the  purpose  of  distillation  is  usually 
conducted  in  a  vessel  especially  constructed  for  distilling,  termed  a  still. 

The  Still  consists  essentially  of  a  retort  and  a  condenser. 

The  retort,  containing  the  liquid  to  be  distilled,  commonly  consists 
of  a  vessel  rounded  below  and  contracted  into  a  neck  above.  The 
neck  or  outlet-pipe  should,  in  order  to  faciliatate  the  escape  of  the 
vapors  into  the  condenser,  gradually  curve  downward. 


DISTILLATION  FROM  A  FI.ASK. 

The  simplest  form  of  distillation  is  effected  by  the  use  of  a  Flask,  fitted 
with  glass-t:ibing,  but  this  is  adapted  only  to  highly  volatile  liquids  and 
for  operations  on  a  small  scale. 

The  distillation  of  acid  liquids  must  be  conducted  in  ^lass  retorts 
and  may  be  successfully  performed  without  the  use  of  other  apparatu* 
than  a  Retort  and  a  Receiver. 

The  vapor  may  be  condensed  in  the  neck  of  the  retort  by  covering  its  en- 
tire length  with  thick  cloth,  kept  constantly  cold  by  trie  application  of  ice- 
cold  water.  If  care  be  taken  that  every  particle  of  vapor  be  condensedt 
before  it  reaches  the  opening  which  dips  into  the  receiver,  it  is  not  even 


50  RETORTS. 

necessary  that  the  joint  between  the  neck  of  the  retort  and  the  receiver  be 
made  tight.  The  receiver  should  be  surrounded  with  ice.  By  this  method 
explosions  due  to  incondensable  gases  may  be  avoided. 

Retorts  employed  in  distilling  acid  or  corrosive  liquids  and  sub- 
stances requiring  a  high  temperature  are  usually  made  of  glass. 

They  are  either  plain  retorts  made  in  one  piece  with  one  opening 
at  the  end  of  the  elongated  neck,  or  furnished  with  a  small  aperture 
at  the  neck  provided  with  a  ground-glass  stopper,  when  they  are  called 
tubulated.  The  purpose  of  this  aperture  (tubulure)  is  to  enable  the 
operator  to  introduce  fresh  quantities  of  the  substance  to  be  distilled 
and  for  the  insertion  of  a  thermometer. 

In  retorts  not  tubulated,  this  procedure  is  very  difficult  and  incon- 
venient, because  the  liquid  cannot  be  poured  into  the  retort  without 
placing  it  in  an  upright  position,  thus  disarranging  the  whole  appara- 
tus. ]5y  means  of  &  funnel-tube  (a  glass  tube  with  a  bell-shaped  end) 
the  retort  can  easily  be  filled  or  replenished  through  the  tubulure. 


RECEIVER  AND  RETORT. 

The  Adapter  is  a  short  tube,  sufficiently  wide  at  one  end  to  receive 
the  end  of  the  still  or  retort,  gradually  tapering  to  a  width  which  ad- 
mits it  into  the  neck  of  the  receiver. 

Condensation. — The  vapor  formed  in  evaporation  by  exposure  to  a 
cold  temperature  is  converted  into  a  liquid — condensed. 

In  distilling  it  is  necessary  to  use  artificial  means  for  condensing 
tne  vapors,  since  the  effect  of  cold  air  alone  would  be  too  slow  and 
unreliable. 

The  Apparatus  for  effecting  condensation  is  termed  a  condenser. 

A  condenser  is  a  tube  or  coil  of  considerable  length  attached  to  the 
neck  of  the  still,  for  carrying  the  vapor  through  a  cold  substance — 
usually  water — and  after  being  condensed  into  liquid  form  to  convey 
it  to  the  receiving  vessel. 


CONDENSERS.  57 

The  usual  forms  of  condensers  are: 

The  worm,  which  consists  of  a  coil  of  tubing,  generally  of  copper 
or  earthenware  pipe,  but  sometimes  of  glass,  and  placed  in  a  tub  of 
running  water,  and 

Lie  big' s  Condenser,  which  consists  of  two  tubes  of  unequal  diameter, 
fitted  one  within  the  other,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  with 
cold  water. 

As  in  evaporation,  the  greater  the  surface  to  which  the  vapor  is  exposed, 
the  greater  the  condensation.  This  principle  has  been  taken  advantage  of 
in  the  construction  of  various  condensers,  such  as  the  manifold  Liebig's 
(Remington's),  and  Lloyd's. 

One  of  the  most  effective  condensers  is  that  known  as  Mitscherlisch's, 
which  consists  of  a  double  cylinder  surrounded  by  cold  water. 


FILLING  RETORT.  LIEBIG'S  CONDENSER. 

Fractional  Distillation  is  the  process  of  distillation  applied  to  the 
separation  of  two  or  more  liquids  having  different  boiling  points. 

The  method  usually  employed  in  this  process  is  to  insert  a  thermometer 
in  the  boiling  liquid,  and  collect  the  distillate  in  different  vessels,  as  it 
comes  over  at  different  temperatures.  The  separation  may  also  be  effected 
by  condensing  the  vapor  in  a  series  of  receivers  exposed  to  different  tem- 
peratures. 

In  pharmacy,  mixtures  of  ether,  alcohol  and  water  are  thus  separated, 
owing  to  the  great  differences  in  their  boiling  points  (or  temperature  for 
vaporization)  and  the  corresponding  differences  in  temperature  necessary 
for  condensation.  In  the  arts  fractional  distillation  is  largely  applied  to 
coal-tar,  oils,  petroleum,  etc.  • 

PHARMACEUTICAL    STILLS. 

The  distillatory  apparatus  best  adapted  for  pharmacal  purposes  are 
made  of  metal,  preferably  tinned  copper. 


58  PHARMACAL   STILLS. 

In  the  oldest  form  of  these,  the  condensation  is  effected  by  cold 
water  contained  in  a  jacketed  top,  surmounting  the  boiler  and  the 
pan  containing  the  liquid  to  be  distilled,  which  together  constitute  a 
water-bath.  The  top  is  rendered  vapor-tight  by  a  water-joint,  but 
owing  to  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  the  joint  is  preferably  made  of 
some  non-vapori/,able  substance,  such  as  Glycerin,  or  Petrolatum. 
The  most  common  and  cheapest  of  this  style  of  Still  is  the  Phoenix 
(made  by  Whitall,  Tatum  &  Co.). 

In  conducting  the  process  of  distillation  the  following  general  rules 
should  be  observed: 

(1)  The  apparatus  must  be  vapor-tight.     Since  the  object  of  the  operation 
is  to  recover  the  volatile  portion,  any  loss  of  vapor  will  necessarily  reduce 
the  quantity    of   the  product — the  distillate.     In  the  pharmaceutical  stills 
where  the  two  parts  of  the  still  are  connected  by  flanges,  these  should  besub- 
stantially  made  and  fit  upon  each  other  perfectly  true,  so  that  when  screwed 
together  they  will  be  tight.     A  piece  of  wet  twine  laid   between  the  flanges 
makes  a  thoroughly  vapor-tight  joint  when  these  are  clamped  together. 

(2)  The  condensation   must  be   complete.     There  must  be  an   abundant 
supply  of  cold  water  around  the  condensing  pipe,  sufficient  to  condense  all 
the  vapor,  otherwise  loss  will  result.     The  water  surrounding  the  vapor  in 
the  condenser  should  always  be  renewed  as  soon  as  it  becomes  warm. 

(3)  In  heating  the  contents  of  the  still,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  in- 
crease of  temperature   be   gradual.     The  still   above  described  is  usually 
heated  by  a  water-bath,  by  which  the  heat  may  easily  be  regulated  and  ac- 
cidents from  over-heating  prevented. 

(4)  The  still  should  never  be  filled  more  than  two-thirds  full  of  the  liquid 
to  be  distilled,  since  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  foam  and  boil  over.     Foaming 
may  be  avoided  by  covering  the  pan  with  a  piece  of  coarse,  wet  cloth,  per- 
mitting its  edges  to  rest  on   the  flange   and   when   compressed   making  a 
vapor-tight  joint. 

For  full  description  of  apparatus  employed  in  distillation  see  Reming- 
ton's or  Parrish's  Practice. 

Sublimation  is  the  process  of  distillation  applied  to  solid  substances, 
or,  more  correctly,  the  process  whereby  vapor  is  condensed  to  a  solid. 

Substances  easily  volatilized,  such  as  camphor,  are  separated  from 
less  volatile  substances  and  obtained  from  their  crude  state  or  refined 
by  sublimation.  The  product  is  said  to  have  been  sublimed  and  it  is 
sometimes  called  a  sublimate  (corrosive  sublimate),  QK  flowers  (sulphur). 

Inorganic  substances,  such  as  iodine,  sulphur,  mercury,  etc.,  are  obtained 
in  a  pure  form  by  sublimation.  Mixtures  of  different  substances  or  chem- 
ical compounds  may  ofte'n  be  separated  by  means  of  sublimation. 

Dry  or  Destructive  Distillation  differs  from  ordinary  distillation  in 
that  it  is  a  process  involving  chemical  changes  for  the  production  of 
gases,  liquids,  or  solids  from  solid  substance,  such  as  wood  and  coal. 


Effects  of  Heat. 

FUSION. 

When  the  state  of  aggregation  in  substances  is  changed  from  solid 
to  liquid  by  the  absorption  of  heat,  the  liquefaction  is  termed  fusion 
or  melting. 

The  melting  or  fusing  point  of  a  substance  is  the  temperature  at  which 
it  changes  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid  condition.  The  fusing  poin. 
is  very  different  for  different  substances,  some  liquefying  at  a  very  low, 
others  at  a  very  high  temperature;  and  others  still,  like  carbon,  resist 
the  highest  temperature  we  are  able  to  command.  These  are  said  to 
be  infusible. 

The  temperature  at  which  fusion  commences  is  constant  for  any 
substance  so  long  as  the  pressure  remains  constant;  and  from  the  time 
that  fusion  commences  the  temperature  remains  stationary  until  the 
whole  of  the  substance  is  melted. 

Some  substances,  as  iron  and  wax,  soften  gradually  before  they  actually 
fuse,  while  others,  as  lead  and  copper,  melt  without  softening.  In  the  case 
of  iron,  great  advantage  is  taken  of  this  property,  as  by  means  of  it  the 
blacksmith  can  weld  different  pieces  together,  or  mould  them  into  any 
desired  shape. 

In  the  melting  of  fats,  wax,  resin,  and  similar  easily  fusible  sub- 
stances liable  to  injury  by  heat,  this  law  has  a  practical  bearing,  viz., 
that  no  injury  by  exposure  of  the  substance  to  heat  can  result  until  the 
fusion  or  liquefaction  is  complete. 

Thus,  in  melting  a  substance  from  which  a  Cerate  is  composed,  the  vessel 
may  be  exposed  to  considerable  heat  without  injury  to  the  substance,  so 
long  as  any  portion  remains  unmelted.  As  soon  as  fusion  is  completed, 
however,  the  heat  must  be  carefully  regulated  (or  its  source  removed), 
since  the  temperature  will  now  steadily  rise  if  heat  be  applied. 

The  kind  of  vessels  used  in  the  process  of  fusion  depends  upon  thts 
chemical  nature  of  the  substance  to  be  melted,  and  the  degree  of  heat 
necessary  for  its  liquefaction.  For  higher  temperatures  crucible  are 
employed. 

In.  pharmacy  \h&  process  of  fusion  is  mostly  applied  to  the  production 
of  Cerates,  Ointments,  Plasters  and  similar  preparations  composed  of 
substances  requiring  a  temperature  usually  below  ioo°C.  (2i2°F.). 

The  melting  point  of  a  substrmn.'.  simihrlv  to  the  specific  gravity  and 
boiling  point  of  liquids,  is  one  of  the  characteristics  whereby  the 


60  FUSION   AND 

identity,  etc.,  may  be  disclosed,  and  is  therefore  often  referred  to  in 
the  U.  S.  Ph.      (Refer  to  the  melting  points  of  Wax,  etc.) 

The  melting  point  of  fats  is  determined  by  immersing  a  small  portion  of 
the  substance  in  a  test-tube  of  boiling  water,  in  which  a  thermometer  is 
placed,  until  completely  melted.  It  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  degree 
of  temperature  at  which  the  substance  commences  to  congeal,  as  indicated 
by  the  thermometer,  is  the  melting  point. 

Deliquescence  is  the  property  which  certain  inorganic  substances  have  to 
absorb  moisture  from  the  air  and  gradually  pass  into  the  liquid  condition. 

Potassium  carbonate  is  an  example  of  a  substance  which  possesses  this 
property  in  a  high  degree.  Substances  of  this  kind  should  be  carefully 
protected  from  the  atmosphere  in  well-covered  cans  or  tightly-stoppered 
bottles,  and,  if  possible,  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

The  term  hygroscopic  is  applied  to  solids  which  attract  moisture,  but  which, 
owing  to  their  inferior  solubility,  do  not  pass  into  the  liquid  condition.  Ex- 
amples of  this  kind  occur  in  many  powdered  extracts. 

Among  the  important  effects  of  heat  are  its  chemical  effects. 

Heat  causes  a  vibratory  motion  of  the  molecules  of  a  compound 
substance.  When  the  temperature  is  increased  this  motion  may  at 
last  become  so  great  as  to  cause  the  constituent  elements  to  move  out 
of  the  spheres  of  their  atomic  attractions,  and  thus  cause  decomposi- 
tion of  the  substance. 

Heat  is  one  of  the  most  useful  agents  for  bringing  about  decomposition. 
Being  a  repellant  force,  and  the  repellant  power  increasing  as  the  tempera- 
ture rises,  it  is  probable  that  if  we  could  command  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature  even  the  most  stable  compounds  would  be  separated  into  their 
elements. 

The  principal  chemical  effects  of  heat  are  the  following: 
Calcination,   which   consists  in  driving  off  volatile   matter,   in  the 
form  of  gas,  from  solid   substances   by  heat.      The  residue  is  usually 
left  in  the  form  of  a  friable  powder,  which  is  said  to  be  calcined. 

Calcination  is  used  chiefly  to  expel  Carbon  Dioxide  from  its  compounds 
(the  carbonates).  For  example,  when  Calcium  and  Magnesium  Carbonates 
are  strongly  heated,  carbon  dioxide  and  water  escape  into  the  atmosphere, 
and  Lime  and  Magnesia,  respectively,  are  left  behind. 

Sublimation  may  be  regarded  as  the  reverse  of  calcination,  being,  as 
already  observed,  a  process  for  separating  a  volatile  solid  substance  from 
one  not  volatile,  and  differs  from  it  in  that  the  volatile  portion  is  the  pro- 
duct desired. 

Ignition  is  a  term  applied  to  the  method  of  testing  chemical  sub- 
stances by  heating  them  to  redness  according  to  Pharmacopoeial  le- 
quirements. 

Deflagration  is  a  process  seldom  employed  in  pharmacy.  It  con- 
sists in  heating  one  inorganic  substance  with  another  capable  of 


CHEMICAL   EFFECTS   OF   HEAT.  61 

yielding  Oxygen,  resulting  in  decomposition  and  the  formation  of  a 
new  compound. 

Oxidation  is  the  union  of  substances  with  Oxygen  producing  oxides. 
This  process  is  usually  favored  by  heat,  moisture  and  division  of  the 
substance,  as  in  the  formation  of  rusf  from  iron,  copper,  etc. 

Some  elements:  Phosphorus,  Potassium,  Sodium,  etc.,  combine 
with  Oxygen  at  the  ordinary  temperature;  other  substances,  as  Char- 
coal, require  a  very  high  heat. 

Reduction  is  the  process  whereby  Oxides  or  Compounds  containing 
Oxygen  are  deprived  of  their  oxygen  by  chemical  action  or  the  use  of 
heat.  The  heating  of  metallic  oxides,  such  as  Red  Oxide  of  Mercury, 
or  the  "roasting"  of  ores  to  obtain  their  metals,  are  examples. 

The  different  stages  of  chemical  effects  of  heat  on  organic  substances 
are  dependent  upon  the  degree  of  heat,  or  combustion,  to  which  the 
substances  are  subjected. 

Thus,  heating  a  vegetable  substance,  it  at  first  becomes  roasted;  by 
increasing  the  heat  it  chars  or  "coals,"  if  air  is  excluded,  and  finally 
by  elevated  temperature  and  in  contact  with  air  it  "burns." 

The  following  are  the  principal  of  these  processes: 

Torre/action,  or  "Roasting,"  consists  in  scorching  or  parching 
organic  substances  to  change  or  modify  certain  constituents  without 
impairing  the  principles  of  the  most  value  in  the  substance  so  treated. 

The  roasting  of  Coffee  is  a  familiar  example,  in  which  the  undesirable 
constituents  are  so  modified  as  to  give  aroma  to  the  berry  without  deterior- 
ation of  the  active  principles,  caffeine  and  caffeotannic  acid. 

Carbonization  is  the  process  of  reducing  to  coal  by  heating  organic 
substances  until  all  volatile  matter  is  expelled,  air  being  excluded. 
The  substance  is  said  to  be  "charred.'' 

Incineration,  or  "Burning,"  is  the  union  of  oxygen  with  the  elements 
of  an  organic  substance  by  the  application  of  heat,  resulting  in  the 
production  of  flame  and  residue,  termed  ash. 


Desiccation. 

The  process  of  vaporization  conducted  as  an  operation  of  evapora- 
tion applied  to  solid  organic  substance  is  termed  Desiccation.  When 
applied  to  solid  inorganic  substances  it  is  called  Exsiccation. 

Crude  substances  obtained  from  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdom? 
are  usually  dried,  or  desiccated,  before  they  can  be  utilized  in  medicine 
— as  their  bulk  is  by  this  means  reduced,  they  are  more  easily  preserved 
and  their  comminution  is  greatly  facilitated. 

As  is  well  known,  all  organic  matter  contains  water,  which,  at  a 
favorable  temperature,  from  32°  to  49°C.  (90°  to  i2o°F.),  facilitates 
changes  in  the  principles  usually  present,  resulting  in  decomposition 
of  the  substance,  and  frequently  impairing  its  value. 

Albumen,  gum,  sugar,  starch,  etc.,  are  substances  found  in  vegeta- 
ble drugs,  which,  with  moisture  and  exposure  to  warm  temperatures, 
undergo  putrefactive  or  fermentative  changes.  The  presence  of 
moisture  and  vegetable  acids  similarly  causes  the  formation  of 
fungoid  growth  (mold),  which  is  detrimental  to  the  substance, 
frequently  diminishing  its  active  principles,  and  hence  impairing  its 
medicinal  value. 

In  depriving  the  substance  of  its  moisture,  by  evaporation  of  the 
water,  we  therefore  remove  the  principal  cause  of  decomposition,  i.  e., 
water.  This  process  is  termed  drying. 

While  the  most  favorable  temperature  for  decomposition  is  38°C. 
(ioo°F.),  albumen  coagulates  at  49°C.  (i2o°F.)  and  at  6o°C. 
(i4o°F.)  and  above,  most  of  the  principles  promoting  change  in 
organic  substances  become  so  modified  by  the  heat  as  to  permit  no 
deterioration  of  the  drugs,  which  are  then  designated  as  cured. 

Since  a  temperature  above  32°C.  (90° F.)  cannot  usually  be  obtained  in 
temperate  climates  from  the  sun's  rays  alone,  the  drying  of  the  drugs  is 
generally  effected  by  artificial  heat,  such  as  hot  air  or  steam.  Substances, 
previous  to  being  dried,  are,  in  the  case  of  fleshy  roots  or  bulbs,  sliced; 
barks  are  deprived  of  the  outer  cork,  fruits  freed  from  the  rind,  etc.,  while 
leaves,  seeds  and  flowers  are  generally  dried  whole.  The  procedure  is  gen- 
erally very  simple,  and  consists  in  exposing  the  substance  properly  prepared 
in  shallow  trays  to  hot  air,  or  barks  may  be  dried  in  a  barrel,  having  a  net 
at  both  ends,  and  placed  upright,  so  that  a  draft  of  hot  air  may  pass 
through  the  contents. 

On  a  large  scale,  drying-rooms  are   used,  heated  by  hot  air  or  steam  and 


DESICCATION   AND    EXSICCATION. 


furnished  with  large  shelves  upon  which  the  trays  containing  the  substance 
to  be  dried  are  placed.  It  is  necessary  to  admit  fresh  air  in  such  drying 
closets  at  the  bottom  and  provide  an  exit  at  the  top  for  the  escape  of  the  air, 
which  has  become  saturated  with  the  moisture  of  the  drugs  in  the  form  A 
vapor  (see  illustration).  Unless  so  arranged  that  a  current  of  air  trans- 
verses  the  drying-room,  acting  as  a  carrying  agent  of  the  water,  the  evapo- 
ration will  cease  as  soon  as  the  air  confined  in  the  chamber  becomes 
saturated  with  vapor. 

The  drying  of  chemicals,  effected  in  the  same  manner,  is  to  drive  off  the 
water  of  crystallixation,  whereby  the  crystals  lose  their  shape,  fall  into  a 
friable  powder  and  the  salt  loses  considerable  weight.  Such  salts  are 
termed  exsiccated.  (Example:  Sodii  Carbonas  Exsiccatus.) 

When  Salts  lose  their  water  of  crystallixation  by  spontaneous  evaporation 
they  are  said  to  F.j)lorcscc.  K  [florescence,  is  the  opposite  of  Deliquescence. 

As  in  the  evaporation  o  f 
liquids,  the  vaporization  is  facili- 
tated by  the  extent  of  surface  ex- 
posed by  the  substance  to  the 
source  of  heat  and  to  the  medium 
which  serves  to  carry  off  the  va- 
por— the  air. 

The  ;w/V  of  evaporation,  there- 
fore, is  governed  greatly  by  the 
following  circumstances: 

(1)  The  percentage  of  mois- 
ture in  the  air,  and  the  rapidity 
with   which   the   air  in    contact 
with  the  substance  is  removed. 

(2)  The  state  of  division  of 

the  substance,  or  physical  condition,  and  its  affinity  for  water. 

Thus,  compact  drugs,  such  as  Aloes,  Guarana,  and  Opium,  must  be  ex- 
posed to  heat  for  a  longer  period  than  porous  drug?,  /.  <•.,  hop  and  senna. 

The  degree  of  temperature  at  which  vegetable  drugs  are  dried,  varies 
with  the  character  of  the  drug.  While  the  maximum  heat  considered 
safe,  6o°C.  (i-j.o°l;.) ,  may  be  applied  to  most  roots,  /.  <•.,  Taraxacum, 
Inula,  Senega,  (ientian,  etc.,  a  temperature  of  49°C.  (i2o°F.)  should 
not  be  exceeded  for  herbs  containing  delicate  principles,  such  as 
Belladonna,  Hyoscyamus,  Digitalis,  etc. 

Parts  of  plants  containing  aromatic,  or  other  volatile  constituents,  PUC'A 
as  the  different  Mints,  Wild-cherry  bark,  anil  the  various  gum-resins, 
Asafcutida,  Myrrh,  etc.,  should  be  dried  very  carefully,  lest  their  active 
principles  should  escape,  thus  rendering  the  drug  more  or  less  inert.  Sub- 
stances of  the  class  named  are  frequently  dried  spontaneously  by  exposure 
to  a  warm  atmosphere. 


SIIKLVKS  IN  DRYING  CLOSET, 
With  Direction  of  Hot  Air  Currents. 


64  PRESERVATION. 

It  is  quite  as  important  that  the  temperature  at  which  the  drug  is 
dried  be  not  so  high  as  to  volatilize  any  fugitive  principle — in  other 
words,  that  it  \K  properly  dried — as  that  the  substance  shall  contain  no 
moisture,  that  is,  be  thoroughly  dried. 

The  quantity  of  water  or  moisture  in  some  vegetable  substances,  when 
fresh,  is  quite  considerable.  Thus,  certain  leaves  lose  eight-ninths  of  their 
weight  in  being  dried;  fleshy  roots  and  bulbs  nearly  as  much;  barks  and 
similar  parts  of  plants  of  close  structure  much  less.  Since,  however,  drugs 
are  rarely  used  in  the  fresh  state,  this  loss  is  immaterial,  although  it  <s 
readily  seen  that  such  drugs,  carefully  dried,  must  be  correspondingly 
stronger  than  the  same  drugs  containing  this  quantity  of  water. 

PRESERVATION. 

The  preservation  of  vegetable  drugs  is  highly  important,  and 
deserves  more  attention  than  it  usually  receives.  The  more  fleshy 
parts  of  plants,  for  instance,  roots  of  Rhubarb,  Jalap,  Colchicum, 
Columbo,  etc.,  as  found  in  pharmacies,  are  frequently  worthless.  This 
condition  is  generally  due  either  to  the  fact  that  the  root  was  not 
properly  dried  or  "cured"  when  purchased,  or  that  it  had  commenced 
to  deteriorate  when  procured  from  the  dealer. 

To  remedy  this  condition,  the  pharmacist  should  select  only  whole  drugs 
of  choice  quality,  and  if,  upon  examination,  they  should  prove  to  be  im- 
perfectly dried,  steps  should  be  taken  at  once  to  effectually  free  them  from 
moisture  by  a  proper  application  of  heat.  This  can  be  readily  accomplished 
by  improvising  a  simple  arrangement  as  outlined  before. 

Specimens  of  drugs  of  excellent  quality  frequently  deteriorate  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  they  are  not  perfectly  dry;  Rhubarb,  and  nearly  all 
fleshy  roots,  easily  become  worm-eaten  when  in  this  moist  condition, 
especially  if  stored  in  a  damp  place,  where,  owing  to  their  hygroscopic 
qualities,  they  rapidly  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  All  vegetable 
drugs,  especially  when  of  this  nature,  must  be  protected  from  damp  air. 
Barks,  flowers  and  leaves  do  not,  as  a  rule,  deteriorate  rapidly,  though 
seeds  and  fruits  undergo  changes  even  when  carefully  preserved,  and  thus 
necessitate  replenishment  of  stock  annually. 

GARBLING. 

Vegetable  substances  should  always  be  carefully  examined  for  the 
detection  of  possible  adulterations,  either  intentional  or  accidental. 
This  operation  is  termed  garbling,  and  substances  so  treated  as  garb led. 

The  most  common  form  of  accidental  admixture  in  parts  of  plants, 
such  as  roots  and  leaves,  is  portions  of  the  stems,  which,  being 
usually  woody  and  inert,  detract  from  the  quality  of  the  drug,  and 
should  invariably  be  rejected. 

Cimicifuga,  Leptandra,  Ipecac  and  Gelsemium  are  specimens  which 
in  the  whole  or  crude  state  are  frequently  mixed  with  considerable 
quantities  of  inert  stein. 


GARBLING.  65 

Dirt,  especially  earth  adhering  to  the  fibers,  is  met  with  generally  in 
Hydrastis,  Lcptrandra  and  Valerian.  These  drugs  should  always  be  pro- 
cured, when  possible,  "washed." 

Leaves  are  frequently  accompanied  by  the  stems,  from  which  they  must  be 
separated,  unless  the  stems  possess  medicinal  properties  and  are  recognized 
as  the  official  part.  Withered  specimens,  however,  are  practical. y  inert 
and  should  be  rejected. 

Flo 7.v;-.r  are  clean  and  easily  preserved  parts  of  plants;  this  is  true  also  of 
Barks,  which  must,  however,  be  gathered  at  the  proper  season  and  be  free 
from  inert  cork  and  tough  fiber. 

Sometimes  the  admixture  is  intentional,  when  it  is  more  difficult  to 
detect  it,  since  specimens  possessing  nearly  similar  physical  properties, 
and  similar  also  in  appearance,  are  used  fur  adulteration. 

The  most  striking  illustration  of  this  is  in  Taraxacum,  large  quantities 
of  which  are  frequently  found  to  consist  entirely  of  Chicory  (Cichorium 
intybus);  also  in  the  substitution  of  Cicrman  for  English  Valerian,  which 
latter  possesses  greater  medicinal  strength,  and  is  therefore  more  highly 
prized. 

More  attention  should  be  paid  by  pharmacists  to  the  quality  of 
drugs,  since  adulteration  and  even  sophistication  can  be  detected  in 
crude  substances  usually  without  much  labor. 

Adulteration  in  its  usual  forms  of  admixture,  dirt  and  inert  portions  of 
plants,  must  be  avoided  to  obtain  preparations  that  are  permanent  and 
possess  definite  medicinal  activity.  The  presence  of  earthy  impurities  in  a 
vegetable  drug  detracts  from  the  elegant  appearance  and  permanency  of 
the  preparations  made  from  it.  Inert  and  sophisticated  specimens  are  of 
course  objectionable,  because  their  use  impairs  the  strength  of  the  prepa- 
ration. 

Unfortunately,  crude  drugs  are  not  procured  in  a  form  which  admits 
of  ready  examination,  since  they  are  generally  put  up  for  the  market 
\\\ pressed  packages.  Large  specimens  ol  the>e  drugs  must  be  crushed 
before  they  can  be  pressed,  and  this  renders  their  identification  ex- 
ceedingly difficult. 

Herbs  and  I.ea--cs,  when  procured  in  small  packages,  should  be  examined 
by  opening  one  or  more  of  these  in  each  large  package,  so  that  the  quality 
may  be  noted.  Preference  should  always  be  given  to  drugs  in  i>it;L,  since 
they  admit  of  ready  examination,  give  better  satisfaction  and  are  more 
economical  to  use. 


Comminution. 


Crude  organic  substances  as  a  rule  require  reduction  to  small  or 
fine  particles  for  pharmacal  purposes.  This  process  is  termed  Com- 
minution (from  con  and  ininiio,  Lat.,  to  lessen),  and  embraces  the  fol- 
lowing operations:  Slicing,  Cutting,  Grating  and  Rasping,  chiefly 
employed  as  preparatory  to  operations  more  effectual  in  reducing  sub- 
stances to  finer  particles. 

Confusion  is  the  operation  of  "Bruising"  drugs  in  a  fresh,  or  moist, 
state  by  pounding  or  beating  them  in  a  mortar. 

GRINDING    AND    POWDERING. 

Grinding  is  the  most  common  operation  of  the  process  of  commi- 
nution. It  is  effected  in  mills  and  produces  various  degrees  of  fineness. 

The  vegetable  substances  used  in  medicine  may  be  generalized  from 
the  standpoint  of  comminution — the  process  of  reducing  to  small 
particles — into  fibrous,  cellular,  stony,  horny  {flexible)  and  fragile  or 
conchoidal. 

Fibrous  drugs  embrace  most  of  the  roots  and  barks. 

Roots  of  fibrous  texture,  such  as  Glycyrrhiza,  Stillingia,  Sarsaparilia,  etc., 
should  be  cut  transversely  into  pieces  of  about  half  an  inch  long  and  dried 
until  crisp,  when  they  can  easily  be  reduced  to  coarse  powder  in  an  iron 
mortar  or  in  a  drug-mill.  Barks  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

Cellular  drugs  comprise  chiefly  herbs,  flowers  and  leaves. 

These  parts  of  the  plant  are  generally  very  light  and  of  loose  texture,  it 
being  almost  impossible  to  reduce  them  to  a  uniform  coarse  powder.  Owing 
to  the  slight  resistance  they  present,  their  reduction  in  a  mill  is  very  dif- 
ficult, the  mortar  being  best  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Small  quantities  of  these  drugs,  to  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  tinctures, 
etc.,  are  reduced  to  a  moderately  coarse  powder  (contused)  by  first  moisten- 
ing the  drug  with  the  menstruum  and  then  beating  it  in  a  bright  iron  mortar. 

Stony  drugs  comprise  only  a  few  tubers,  Aconite  and  Jalap  and 
some  roots,  among  which  Stone  root  (Collinsonia)  and  Gelsemium 
are  conspicuous. 

These  drugs  rarely  appear  in  the  market  whole,  since  they  can  only  be 
reduced  to  powder  in  mills  worked  by  steam-power.  Some  of  these  drugs 
possess  poisonous  properties,  and  great  care  is  therefore  necessary  in  grind- 
ing them. 

Horny  or  Flexible  drugs  include  mostly  seeds  and  low  forms  of 
organization,  such  as  Krgot  and  Galls. 


POWDERING.  67 

These  drugs  are  very  difficult  to  powder;  owing  to  their  flexible  nature, 
they  pass  between  the  grinding  plates  of  a  mill,  unless  it  be  a  powerful 
one,  intact.  The  best  work  can  be  effected  by  pounding  them  in  a  large 
iron  mortar,  the  constant  concussion  having  the  best  effect  upon  the  shell 
of  the  seed.  Nux  Vomica  is  especially  difficult  to  reduce  to  powder,  but 
when  steamed  for  a  few  hours  and  then  dried,  it  may  be  powdered  with 
comparative  ease. 

By  Fragile  drugs  is  meant  such  as  break  readily  and  present  a  con- 
choidal  fracture.  They  embrace  most  of  the  gums,  resins  and  natural 
extracts,  such  as  Acacia,  Guaiac  and  Aloes  respectively. 

These  are  easily  and  quickly  reduced  to  powder  in  a  large  Wedgewood 
mortar  with  a  flat  bottom.  This  class  of  drugs  usually  requires  drying,  as 
they  contain  a  large  percentage  of  water. 

POWDERING. 

All  substances  are  more  readily  acted  upon  by  solvents  when  re- 
duced \.Q  powder,  for  the  reason  that  in  this  form  the  greet test  surface 
is  presented  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  liquid. 

Vegetable  drugs  consisting  of  parts  of  plants  are  composed  of  cel- 
lular tissue  in  which  the  active  principles  are  found.  The  medicinal 
constituents,  alkaloids,  neutral  principles,  vesins  or  acids,  are  in  solu- 
tion in  the  sap  flowing  through  the  cells  which  irake  up  the  tissue,  and, 
upon  evaporation  of  the  water  in  the  process  of  drying,  are  left  in 
these  cells  in  a  more  or  less  soluble  condition.  When,  therefore, 
it  is  desired  to  obtain  these  principles  in  solution,  it  is  necessary  to 
rupture  the  cell-walls,  so  that  the  solvent  action  of  the  liquid  used 
in  the  extraction  (menstruum)  may  exercise  its  full  power. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  degree  of  fineness  of  a  powder  of 
any  given  drug  should  be,  as  far  as  practicable,  pro;  oriioned  to  the 
size  of  the  cells  which  make  up  its  structure. 

In  vegetable  drugs  the  cell-walls  are  usually  a  sort  of  septum  or  mem- 
brane which  permits  solution  of  the  principles  they  contain  by  the  entrance 
and  outflow  of  the  liquid  charged  with  the  constituents  of  the  drug.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  termed  i>s»it>sis,  or,  when  applied  to  the  separation  of  different 
substances,  dialysis.  With  the  aid  of  this  property,  peculiar  to  most  organic 
substances,  solution  of  the  constituents  of  a  plant  may  often  be  effected 
without  reducing  the  part  to  a  fineness  corresponding  to  the  si/e  of  the  cells. 
This  is  the  case  whenever  the  active  principles  are  soluble  in  water.  It  so 
happens,  however,  that  the  cell-walls  do  not  acquire  the  power  of  osmosis 
until  they  have  been  restored  to  the  condition  they  had  previous  to  drying, 
or,  in  other  words,  until  they  have  absorbed  :,vA  /••  to  saturation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  active  principles  of  a  great  many  drugs,  especially 
alkaloids,  resins  and  oleo-resins,  are  scarcely  soluble  in  water,  and  such 
menstrua  must  be  used  for  extraction  (alcohol)  as  will  readily  dissolve  them, 


68  MORTARS. 

water  being  therefore  excluded.  It  is  necessary  with  this  class  of  sub- 
stances to  reduce  them  to  rery  fine  powder  for  extraction,  since  only  the 
solvent  action  of  the  liquid  can  be  relied  upon,  the  exhaustion  of  the  drug 
not  being  favored  by  osmosis  through  the  cell-walls. 

A  general  rule  is,  therefore:  When  alcohol,  or  strongly  alcoholic 
menstrua,  are  used,  the  drug  to  be  extracted  must  be  in  very  fine 
powder  to  admit  of  complete  exhaustion. 

For  this  reason,  Cinchona,  Aconite,  Belladonna,  Nux  Vomica,  etc.,  are 
directed  to  be  in  very  fine  powder. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  drugs  the  active  principles  of  which  consist 
of  acids,  /.  c. ,  Senna,  Gentian,  Taraxacum,  or  other  similar  prin- 
ciples soluble  in  water,  the  fineness  need  not  be  greater  than  that  of  a 
moderately  coarse  powder,  the  water  permeating  the  cell-walls  and  in- 
ducing the  osmotic  action,  exhaustion  will  soon  be  completed. 

dun,  pectin  and  sugar  are  inert  substances  frequently  present  in  drugs, 
and  since  they  are  rendered  more  or  less  soluble  by  water  or  watery  men- 
strua, they  may  retard  extraction  if  the  drug  be  in  a  very  fine  powder. 

MORTARS. 

This  well-known  piece  of  apparatus,  the  first  invention  of  aboriginal 
man  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  vegetable  substances  to  a  condition 
suitable  for  food,  is  indispensable  in  the  pharmacy  and  has  long  been 
the  accepted  symbol  of  the  art  and  the  profession. 

Mortars  are  made  of  wood,  stone  and  marble  for  contusing;  of  brass 
and  iron  for  contusing  and  powdering,  and  of  porcelain  and  glass 
for  triturating. 

The  Wedge-wad  mortar,  so  named  after  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  earthen- 
ware made  in  England,  is  the  most  durable  and  suitable  of  any. 

In  its  various  shapes  and  sizes  it  answers  the  purposes  of  all  the  opera- 
tions of  powdering,  trituration  and  mixing,  but  not  that  of  contusion,  since 
it  is  very  hard  and  easily  fractured  by  a  hard  blow  of  the  pestle. 

In  the  pharmacy  some  drugs  may  be  powdered  in  an  iron  mortar  placed 
upon  a  stand  fixed  in  the  ground,  and  provided  with  a  spring  to  the  pestle 
rirmly  fastened  to  the  rafter  of  the  ceiling.  A  cord  attached  to  the  small  end 
of  the  spring  and  fastened  to  the  pestle  handle  permits  the  pestle  to  de- 
scend by  the  force  of  the  hand. 

Cinchona,  Ergot,  Opium,  etc.,  may  be  powdered  by  means  of  this  inex- 
pensive and  labor-saving  device.  Squills,  gums  and  gum-resins  when 
chilled  may  be  reduced  to  very  fine  powder  without  difficulty ;  it  is  necessary, 
however,  in  order  to  preserve  them  in  the  powdered  form  and  prevent 
"caking,"  to  add  a  small  quantity  of  some  inert  matter,  such  as  milk-sugar. 
This  class  of  powders  must  be  stored  in  tightly-stoppered  bottles,  and  in  a 
cool,  dry  oiace. 


Trituration. 


Trituration  (from  tritus,  Lat.  ,  to  wear)  is  the  operation  of  reducing 
a  substance  to  the  finest  state  of  division  by  grinding  the  partiHes 
together  for  a  long  time. 

While  in  a  pharmacal  sense  a  poivdcr  may  mean  any  degree  of  fine- 
ness, in  a  popular  sense  a  "powder"  means  the  highest  attainable  de- 
gree of  fineness.  To  such  is  often  also  applied  the  term  "pulver- 
ized" (from  pulver,  Lat.,  powder). 

The  finest  state  of  division  of  solid  substances  is  designated  in 
pharmacy  as  impalpability  and  such  fineness  as  impalpable.  An  im- 
palpable powder  is  defined  as  a  powder  of  such  fineness  that  its  particles 
arc  not  sensible  to  the  touch 

The  powdered  Drugs  and  chemicals  of  commerce  are  usually  of  this 
degree  of  fineness,  obtained  by  trituration. 

The  reduction  of  vegetable  substances  to  this  degree  of  fineness  is 
generally  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  since  it  requires  expensive  rm- 
chinery  and  steam  power. 

The  dusting  process  is  that  usually  employed,  and  consists  in  crush- 
ing the  drug  by  means  of  stones  of  large  diameter  and  great  weight. 
revolving  on  a  base;  the  dust  which  rises  during  the  process  accumu- 
lates upon  the  platform  placed  at  a  height  of  about  four  feet,  and  is 
collected.  Such  mills  are  termed  "chasers." 


which  present  a  conchoidal  fracture,  and  are  more  brittle,  are  easily 
powder  id  on  a  small  scale  in  a  ball-mill,  or  "pot-mill,"  which  consists  of 
a  hollow  ball  of  any  desired  dimensions,  revolving  upon  an  axis.  In  the 
interior  of  this  hollow  ball  are  placed  two  or  more  cannon  balls  (through  a 
convenient  opening  which  may  be  closed  with  a  large  flat  cork).  The  weight 
and  triturating  action  of  the  cannon  balls  reduce  the  substance  quickly  to 
a  very  fine  powder. 

Chemical  substances  are  easily  triturated  in  a  mortar  to  a  very  fine 
powder.  Active  medicines,  such  as  Calomel,  and  Alkaloids  and  active 
principles,  are  triturated  with  other  substances,  such  as  Milk  Sugar,  to  in- 
sure more  complete  division  and  enhance  their  medicinal  action.  (See 
Triturations  U.  S.  Ph.) 

Lcrigation  is  the  operation  whereby  a  substance  is  reduced  to  the 
finest  particles  by  triturating  it  with  a  liquid.  It  may  be  performed 
either  in  a  mortar  or  on  a  slab  with  a  muller  The  trituration  of 
metallic  oxides  with  oils  in  the  preparation  of  ointments,  as  in  Ung. 
Hydrargyri  Oxidi  Rubri,  is  a  good  example. 


fO  SIFTING. 

SIFTING. 

The  operauon  of  separating  the  coarse  from  the  fine  particles  of  a 
substance,  which  has  been  ground  or  powdered,  is  termed  sifting. 

Tt  consists  of  passing  the  substance  through  a  sieie,  made  of  cloth  of  dif- 
ferent sized  meshes  corresponding  to  the  various  degrees  of  fineness  desired. 
These  cloths  are  of  iron  and  brass  wire  for  the  coarse  and  fine  powders  and 
of  hair  and  silk,  or  bolting-cloth,  for  the  finest,  or  impalpable  powders. 

For  the  purposes  of  extraction  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  drugs  of  a 
uniform  fineness,  and  this  is  obtained  by  passing  them  through  sieves 
of  a  certain  number  of  meshes  to  the  linear  inch. 

These  degrees  of  fineness  are  directed  by  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '90,  as  fol- 
lows: 

A  very  fine  powder No.  80  powder. 

Kfine  powder No.  60  powder. 

A  moderately  fine  powder No.  50  powder. 

A  moderately  coarse  powder No.  40  powder. 

A  coarse  powder No.  20  powder. 

Elutriation  is  the  operation  of  separating  the  finer  particles  of  a 

nbstance  by  suspending  the  powdered  substance  in  water — decanting 

the  lighter  portion  freed  from  the  heavier  coarse  particles  and  obtaining 

them  in  a  fine  condition  by  subsidence  and  evaporation  of  the  water. 

This  operation  has  been  termed  "water-sifting"  It  depends  for  its  ac- 
tion upon  the  adhesion  of  the  smaller  particles  to  the  water-molecules. 
Prepared  Chalk  is  a  well-known  example  of  a  substance  "prepared"  by  this 
method  in  a  form  free  from  g:.~~. 


Solution. 

When  a  solid  is  transformed  into  the  liquid  state,  by  heat,  it  may 
be  said  to  undergo  the  process  of  liquefaction,  but  when  a  substance 
(solid  or  liquid)  is  rendered  into  permanent  liquid  form  by  dis- 
tributing its  particles  throughout  the  liquid  it  is  said  to  pass  into  solution. 

Solution  as  a  pharmacal  operation,  therefore,  is  the  mechanical 
separation  and  diffusion  of  the  molecules  of  a  solid  substance  through  a 
liquid. 

For  example,  when  a  small  quantity  of  common  salt  is  placed  in 
water,  it  gradually  disappears  from  view,  the  water  becomes  saline  to 
to  the  taste,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  increased.  This  liquid  mix- 
ture of  salt  and  water  is  called  a  solution.  The  liquid  in  which  the 
solution  takes  place  is  called  a  solvent. 

In  all  cases  of  solution  proper,  neither  the  solvent  nor  the  dissolved 
solid  undergoes  chemical  change.  The  solid  retains  all  its  original 
properties  except  solidity,  and  may,  by  evaporation  of  the  solvent,  be 
recovered  from  the  liquid  in  the  original  form,  without  loss  of  weight. 
Such  solutions  are  called,  for  convenience,  simple  solutions. 

Solution  is  often  accompanied  by  chemical  combination,  that  is,  the 
solid  not  only  disappears  in  the  liquid,  but  at  the  same  time  under- 
goes chemical  change,  or  enters  into  combination  with  the  liquid. 

The  resulting  liquid  is,  for  convenience,  called  a  chemical  solution, 
or  a  complex  solution,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  two  pro- 
cesses of  solution  and  chemical  combination  are  radically  different  in 
their  nature,  and  only  such  facts  pertaining  to  the  latter  as  wi-l  aid  in 
distinguishing  between  these  two  kinds  of  solutions  are  considered  in 
this  Lecture. 

Solution  is  purely  a  phenomenon  of  molecular  attraction.  The  particles 
of  the  solid  are  pulled  asunder  and  diffused  through  the  liquid  by  virtue  of 
the  attraction  exerted  upon  them  by  the  molecules  of  the  liquid.  In  chemi- 
cal combination,  on  the  other  hand,  a  new  force  comes  into  play,  that  of 
chemical  affinity,  which  changes  the  identity  of  the  substances  and  builds 
up  new  compounds  out  of  the  old. 

For  example,  if  a  small  quantity  of  Iodine  be  added  to  an  aqueous 
solution  of  Potassium  Hydrate  (^caustic  potash)  and  the  mixture  be 
heated,  the  Iodine  will  gradually  disappear,  but  it  will  be  found,  on 
examination,  that  something  more  than  solution  has  taken  place.  On 
evaporating  the  liquid,  no  Iodine,  as  such,  will  be  found,  the  Potas- 


?6  METHODS  OF 

shim  Hydrate  will  have  disappeared,  and  Potassium  Iodide  and  lodate, 
entirely  new  substances,  will  be  found  in  the  residue. 

Another  difference  between  these  important  processes  is  their  effect 
on  temperature. 

A  lowering  of  the  temperature  always  results  from  solution,  while 
chemical  combination  invariably  produces  the  opposite  effect. 

In  the  case  of  many  anhydrous  substances,  as  Lime  and  Caustic 
Alkalies  and  Alcohol  and  Sulphuric  Acid,  their  solution  in  water  pro- 
duces an  elevation  of  the  temperature.  This  apparent  exception  to 
the  la\v  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  combine  chemically  with  a  portion 
of  the  water  and  such  solutions  should,  therefore,  be  strictly  regarded 
as  chemical  solutions. 

In  the  case  of  a  mixture  where  both  solution  and  chemical  combi- 
nation take  place,  it  is  evident  that  the  opposite  effects  of  these  two 
processes  on  the  temperature  will  tend  to  neutralize  each  other. 

The  solution  of  many  salts  causes  so  great  a  reduction  of  temperature, 
that  advantage  is  taken  of  it  to  produce  freezing  mixtures,  as  when 
Common  Salt  is  mixed  with  Snow  a  temperature  more  than  forty 
degrees  below  the  freezing  point  is  attained. 

Another  difference  between  solution  and  chemical  combination  is  the 
fact  that  the  latter  takes  place  most  easily  between  substances  which 
are  most  unlike,  while  solution  usually  takes  place  most  readily  be- 
tween substances  that  most  resemble  each  other  in  composition  and 
properties. 

Thus  Acids  and  Alkalies  form  chemical  combination  and  solution,  while 
Fats  form  simple  solution  with  Ether  and  Resins  with  Alcohol. 

As  solution  is  one  of  the  most  important  agencies  in  the  hands  of 
the  pharmacist  for  performing  many  operations,  it  is  important  for 
him  to  understand  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  the  operation. 

As  a  great  general  rule,  whatever  weakens  the  cohesion  of  the 
particles  of  a  substance  promotes  solution. 

The  means  used  to  weaken  cohesion  are  chiefly  three  in  number: 

(i)  Heat,  (2)  Mechanical  division  and  (3)  Favorable  position  of 
the  substance  as  regards  the  solvent. 

Heat  weakens  cohesion,  because  it  increases  the  spaces  between  the 
molecules,  and  also  because  it  increases  molecular  motion. 

A  hot  solvent  is  usually  more  speedy  in  its  action,  and  takes  up  a 
larger  quantity  of  the  solid  substance  than  a  cold  one.  But  the  law 
has  some  notable  exceptions.  Common  salt,  for  example,  is  no  more 


EFFECTING   SOLUTION.  77 

soluble  in  hot  than  in  cold  water,  and  Lime  is  far  less  soluble  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter. 

The  Mfchanifii  division  of  a  substance  is  accomplished  in  various 
ways:  by  agitation,  by  grinding,  as  in  a  drug-mill,  and  by  trituration, 
as  in  a  mortar.  It  not  only  weakens  cohesion,  but  by  reducing  the 
substance  to  a  fine  powder  exposes  a  vastly  greater  surface  to  the  action 
of  the  solvent. 

When  weak  solutions  of  readily  soluble  substances  are  to  be  made, 
the  method  of  agitation  is  usually  to  be  preferred;  that  is,  the  sub- 
stance is  dropped  into  a  suitable  vessel,  and  the  mixture  shaken  until 
solution  is  complete.  Where  strong  solutions  are  required,  or  where 
the  substance  is  not  readily  soluble,  solution  is  facilitated  by  tritura- 
tion with  a  solvent  in  a  porcelain  mortar.  The  substance  is  first  rubbed 
to  a  powder,  a  little  of  the  solvent  is  then  added,  and  the  rubbing 
continued  until  the  liquid  is  saturated  or  nearly  so,  when  this  portion 
is  poured  off  in  the 'same  way.  This  process  is  continued  until  all  of 
the  substance  has  been  dissolved. 

The  importance  of  a  favorable  position  of  the  substance  with  refer- 
ence to  the  solvent,  is  shown  in  the  method  of  circulatory  displace- 
ment. 

The  substance  to  be  dissolved  is  suspended  just  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  liquid,  on  a  porous  diaphragm,  or  in  a  bag  of  some  porous 
material.  The  liquid  in  contact  with  the  substance  dissolves  a  portion 
of  it,  lias  its  specific  gravity  inceased  in  consequence,  and  therefore 
sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  a  fresh  portion  of  the  solvent  is 
brought  in  contact  with  the  substance.  Currents  are  thus  established 
in  the  liquid,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  keep  that  portion  of  it,  which 
is  farthest  from  saturation,  and  has  most  solvent  power,  in  contact 
with  the  substance  to  be  dissolved. 

Many  substances  are  so  readily  soluble  that  either  heat  or  division 
effect  their  solution  so  rapidly  as  to  retard  the  process.  This  is  for  the 
reason  that  the  liquid  becomes  quickly  saturated  and  of  such  thick  consis- 
tence (viscid)  as  to  envelope  the  solid  particles  and  prevent  access  of  fresh 
solvent. 

Sugar  dissolves  more  rapidly  in  coarse  powder  (granulated)  than  in  fine 
powder  and  Gum  Arabic  forms  a  solution  with  cold  water  more  quickly 
than  when  heated. 

SOLUIJILITY. 

Different  solids  differ  from  each  other  very  widely  in  solubility.      A 
few  are  insoluble,  many  slightly  soluble,  and  many  freely  soluble. 
Some,  like  Gum  Acacia,  are  soluble  in   all  proportions,  and   some, 


78  SOLUBILITY. 

like  Potassium  Chlorate  and  Calcium  Sulphate,  only  in  limited  pro- 
portions. Some  that  are  insoluble  or  nearly  so  in  pure  water,  be- 
come freely  soluble  in  certain  saline  solutions,  as  for  instance,  Ben/oic 
and  Salicylic  Acids,  that  dissolve  but  sparingly  in  pure  water,  are  dis- 
solved in  large  quantities  by  solutions  of  Alkaline  Acetates,  Carbon- 
ates and  Phosphates  in  water,  but  this  cannot  be  regarded  as  strictly 
simple  solution.  The  reverse  is  usually  the  case,  however,  as,  for  in- 
stance, an  aqueous  solution  of  Sugar  will  dissolve  less  of  a  salt  than 
pure  water. 

Sustances  that  are  sparingly  soluble  in  one  liquid  may  be  freely 
soluble  in  another,  as  Camphor,  which  is  taken  up  only  in  small  pro- 
portion by  Water,  but  is  dissolved  in  very  large  quantity  by  Alcohol 
and  Sulphur,  which  resists  the  action  of  all  ordinary  solvents,  but 
melts  away  like  sugar  in  wrater,  when  agitated  with  Carbon  Bisulphide. 

The  quantity  of  a  solid  which  a  solvent  will  take  up  must  be 
determined  by  experiment  in  each  case,  as  there  is  no  known  law 
governing  solvent  action. 

The  solubility  of  most  substances  varies  regularly  with  the  tempera- 
ture until  a  certain  limit  is  reached,  beyond  which  no  further  increase 
takes  place;  but  in  some  cases  solubility  increases  faster  than  the  tem- 
perature, and  in  others  it  increases  to  a  certain  point  with  heat,  and 
then  declines.  As  in  the  case  of  liquids,  the  Specific  Gravity  and 
Boiling  Point  and  in  some  solids  the  Melting  Point,  are  regarded 
as  important  characteristics,  and  reference  is  made  thereto  in  the 
U.  S.  Ph.,  so  is  the  solubility  of  a  solid  indicated  by  the  number  oj 
parts  of  the  different  liquids  required  to  effect  complete  solution  of  one 
part  of  the  solid. 

Since  the  solubility  is  influenced  by  temperature,  solubilities  are 
always  referred  to  the  uniform  temperature  of  i5°C.  (59°F.). 

The  most  common  Solvents  are:  Distilled  Water,  Alcohol,  Ether, 
Chloroform,  Ben/in,  Carbon  Disulphide  and  the  Fixed  and  Volatile 
Oils  of  which  latter  Oil  of  Turpentine  is  the  type. 

A  solvent  is  said  to  be  saturated  when  it  refuses  to  take  up  more  of 
a  given  solid.  The  term  is  also  used  in  a  chemical  sense.  For  in- 
stance, an  arid  is  said  to  be  saturated  with  an  alkali  when  the  solution 
is  neutral  to  test  paper. 

[Refer  to  Solubilities  of  the  principal  officinal  chemicals  in  the 
U.  S.  Ph.] 

A  solvent  is  said  to  be  supersaturated  when   it  contains  in  solution 


OSMOSIS.  79 

more  of  a  solid  than  it  would  take  up  if  the  solid  were  treated  with  the 
solvent  at  the  given  temperature. 

For  example,  if  we  prepare  a  saturated  solution  of  Sodium  Sulphate 
in  a  test-tube,  and  stop  the  test-tube  while  the  liquid  is  still  boiling 
and  allow  the  solution  to  cool,  without  agitation,  to  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  it  may  be  kept  for  weeks  or  months  without  crystallizing; 
but  if  a  glass  rod  be  plunged  into  it,  crystals  will  suddenly  be  formed 
through  the  entire  mass. 

The  phenomenon  is  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  the  molecules, 
being  held  in  equilibrium  by  their  mutual  attractions,  are  not  free 
to  obey  the  polar  forces  that  produce  crystallization  until  a  disturbing 
cause  is  introduced. 

The  term  supersaturated  is  also  used  in  an  entirely  different  sense  by 
chemists.  An  acid,  for  instance,  is  said  to  be  supersaturated  by  an 
alkali  when  more  than  enough  of  the  latter  has  been  added  than  is  suf- 
ficient to  neutralize  the  former. 

Diffusion  of  one  liquid  through  another  is  of  the  same  nature  as 
solution,  and,  like  it,  is  a  phenomenon  of  molecular  attraction. 

Liquids  differ  from  each  other  very  widely  in  their  power  to  diffuse 
through  water.  Some,  as  the  Fixed  Oils,  do  not  mingle  with  Water 
at  all;  others,  like  the  Volatile  Oils,  are  sparingly  dissolved  by  it,  and 
still  others,  as  Glycerin  and  Alcohol,  mingle  with  it  in  any  proportion. 

OSMOSIS. 

The  mingling  of  liquids  or  gases  by  diffusion  through  animal  or 
vegetable  tissue  capable  of  being  wet  by  both  liquids,  is  called  osmosis. 

Such  membranes  possess  multitudes  of  excessively  minute  pores 
which  constitute  so  many  capillary  tubes,  by  means  of  which  the 
liquids  are  brought  in  contact  with  each  other  and  enabled  to  com- 
mingle. This  phenomenon  is  due  to  capillarity,  a  result  of  molecular 
attraction. 

When  the  process  of  osmosis  is  applied  to  the  separation  of  the 
crystallizable  from  uncrystallizable  substances,  it  is  termed  Dialysis. 

The  strength  of  the  currents  passing  in  opposite  directions  through 
the  membrane  depends  partl\-  on  the  densities  of  the  liquids  and  partly 
on  their  power  to  wet  the  membrane.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
strongest  current  is  toward  the  denser  liquid;  and  if  the  liquids  are  of 
equal  density  the  stronger  current  will  be  toward  the  liquid  that  has 
the  least  power  to  wet  the  membrane. 

Crystalloids  diffuse  readily  through  porous  membranes,  colloids   do 


8o 


DIALYSIS. 


not;  hence  it  becomes  possible  by  osmosis  to  separate  the  latter  from 
the  former,  by  dialysis. 

A  Dialvzcr  consists  of  t\vo  vessels,  one  suspended  in  the  other. 
The  outer  vessel  contains  the  liquid  in  which  it  is  desired  to  ob- 
tain the  diffusible  portions,  distilled  water  being  mostly  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  inner  vessel,  or  the  dialyzer  proper,  consists  of  a  ring 

of  India-rubber  or  glass,  to  which 
a  piece  of  parchment  paper  is  se- 
curely fastened,  as  in  a  drum,  at  the 
bottom.  The  liquid  to  be  dialyzed 
is  poured  into  the  last  mentioned 
vessel,  which  is  then  suspended  in 
the  water  so  that  the  bottom  barely 
reaches  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.  In  pharmacy  this  process 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  Dia- 
ly/.ed  Iron  and  some  Alkaloids. 

THE  DIALYZER.  ^ne  mixing>  or  simple  diffusion 

of  liquids,  when  unaccompanied  by 
chemical  change,  usually  causes  no  change  of  temperature. 

The  diffusion  of  gases  through  liquids  is  called  absorption. 

This  is  also  a  phenomenon  of  molecular  attraction,  and  does  not 
differ  in  its  essential  nature  from  solution.  Its  effects  on  temperature, 
however,  are  often  different  from  those  of  solution.  In  cases  where 
large  quantities  of  a  gas  are  absorbed  by  the  liquid,  the  temperature 
rises,  because  the  absorbed  gas  is  condensed  in  volume,  and  a  portion 
of  its  latent  heat  is  thereby  rendered  sensible.  Also  an  deration  of 
temperature  usually  facilitates  solution,  while  a  lowering  of  tempera- 
ture increases  the  absorption  of  a  gas.  Pressure  has  the  same  effect. 
This  is  illustrated  in  charging  a  Soda  Fountain  with  Carbon  Dioxide. 


Filtration. 

Filtration  is  the  process  of  removing  undissolved  matter  from  a 
liquid;  the  clear  liquid  thus  obtained  is  termed  the  filtrate. 

When  the  operation  is  applied  to  viscid  substances,  such  as  syrups, 
oils,  etc.,  or  to  remove  grosser  impurities,  it  is  termed  straining. 

Filtration,  in  pharmacy,  is  usually  applied  to  solutions  in  which  the 
substance  dissolved  has  been  thrown  out  of  solution — precipitated, 
from  a  change  in  temperature  or  other  cause.  The  operation  is  always 
effected  mechanically  by  passing  the  liquid  containing  the  undissolved 
matter  through  some  material  of  sufficiently  close  texture  to  arrest  the 
solid  particles,  while  the  clear  liquid  is  allowed  to  flow  through  freely. 
Such  material  is  termed  &  filtering  medium  (plural,  media). 

The  most  common  Filtering  Media  are:  Paper,  Cotton,  Sand,  Glass- 
wool  and  porous  Earthenware,  the  form  of  the  auxiliary  apparatus  em- 
ployed, except  in  the  case  of  the  last  mentioned,  being  •A.  funnel. 

The  nature  of  the  filtering  medium  used  depends  upon  the  mobility 
of  the  liquid  and  the  character  of  the  undissolved  matter.  With 
watery,  alcoholic,  ethereal  and  similarly  mobile  liquids,  when  not  too 
concentrated,  filter  paper  is  commonly  used. 

Filter-paper  is  of  two  kinds,  gray  and  white,  in  circular  and  square 
sheets  respectively. 

Gray  filter-paper  is  the  kind  employed  in  pharmacy;  it  is  made  of 
woolen  rags,  and  is  therefore  coarser  and  more  porous  than  the  white, 
or  so-called  .Swedish  filter-paper,  used  in  analytical  operations.  The 
gray  filter-paper  is  stronger,  can  bear  the  weight  of  a  large  quantity  of 
liquid,  filters  more  rapidly,  and  is  therefore  to  be  preferred  when 
large  quantities  of  galenical  preparations,  /.  c.,  tinctures,  medicated 
waters,  etc.,  are  to  be  filtered. 

The  rapidity  of  filtration  is  of  great  importance,  both  for  expediting 
work  and  to  prevent  loss  by  evaporation  which  cannot  always  be  over- 
come even  though  the  vessel  used  in  the  operation  be  well  covered. 

Filtration  is  favored,  other  tilings  being  equal,  by  the  following 
considerations: 

(i)  The  filter  should  be  carefully  folded.  The  folding  of  a  filter,  or 
"plaiting,"  is  accomplished  in  various  ways,  but  no  filter  can  be  con- 
sidered perfect  unless  folded  to  resemble  a  fan  with  32  exactly  equal 
parts,  with  the  edges  perfectly  even  when  laid  together  (as  in  a  fan) 


8a  RULES  GOVERNING 

and  narrowing  down  to  as  small  a  point  as  possible,  without  breaking 
the  paper.  The  result  is  easily  accomplished  in  a  very  simple  man- 
ner, as  follows: 

The  sheet  of  round  filter-paper  is  to  be  folded  into  32  equal  parts,  the  folds 
passing  through  the  center.  The  sheet  is  first  folded  into  halves  by  laying 
its  circular  edges  evenly  together  and  making  a  sharp  crease  along  the  fold 
with  the  thumb-nail  or  a  spatula,  then  into  quarters  by  folding  at  16. 

For  better  illustration  (see  figure),  we  shall  now  number  the  different  parts 
of  the  double  sheet  according  to  the  32  parts  the  circle  represents;  each 
successive  fold  being  designated  by  its  respective  number. 


DIAGRAM   OF   FILTER  HALF   FOLDED,    THE   LINES   CORRESPONDING  TO   THE 
RESPECTIVE   FOLDS. 

The  first  fold  is  made  at  8;  it  is  then  opened  out  and  folded"  forward  at  4; 
then  bo.ck-i.vard  at  2,  and  again  backward  at  6. 

Each  fold  should  be  made  perfectly  straight  and  as  close  to  the  point  as 
practicable  without  rupturing  the  paper. 

The  folded  parts  2,  4,  6,  and  8  are  then  gathered  up  to  16  and  folded  at  12, 
then  folded  backward  at  10,  then  forward  at  16  and  backward  again  at  14, 
which  completes  the  folding  of  the  16  parts  or  one-half  of  the  circle  or  filter. 

The  other  half  is  folded  in  precisely  the  same  way. 

(2)  The  filter  should  be  pushed  down  into  the  neck  of  the  funnel 
as  far  as  possible  without  rupturing  the  paper. 

This  is  especially  desirable  when  syrupy  liquids  are  to  be  filtered,  such  as 
elixirs  and  similar  liquids  which  filter  slowly.  For  this  purpose  a  funnel 
with  a  wide  neck  should  be  employed  (see  Funnels);  the  point  of  the  filter 
paper  is  by  this  means  strengthened,  and  the  crevices  formed  in  the  paper, 
when  pushed  down  into  the  comparatively  narrow  neck  of  the  funnel, 
facilitates  filtration,  and  aids  in  rendering  the  filtrate  clear. 

This  fact  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  arts  in  the  filtration  of  syrups,  oils, 


FILTRATION.  83 

etc.,  through  bags  made  of  filtering  cloth  in  the  following  manner:  A  long 
bag,  narrow  at  the  top  and  gradually  widening  at  the  bottom,  is  forced  into 
a  narrow  tin  cylinder  so  that  the  sides  of  the  bag  are  filled  with  fissures  and 
furrows;  the  upper  end  of  the  bag  is  securely  fastened  to  an  opening  in  the 
lid  of  the  tin  cylinder,  which  is  screwed  on  air-tight.  The  liquid  to  be 
filtered  is  permitted  to  flow  through  this  opening  into  the  bag;  the  insoluble 
matter  which  it  holds  in  suspension  lodges  upon  the  protruding  sides  of  the 
confined  \>a.ggraJital/yt  not  in  such  quantity  as  to  prevent  the  outflow  of  the  clear 
liquid,  which  would  be  the  case  if  a  bag  with  straight  sides  were  employed. 

Filtration  is  usually  further  facilitated,  in  this  and  other  kinds  of 
filters,  by  allowing  the  liquid  to  flow  through  a  tube,  which  is  con- 
nected air-tight  with  the  filter,  from  a  height  of  10  to  30  feet;  this  is 
termed  filtration  \>y  pressure. 

(3)  The  filter  should  be  thoroughly  moistened  before  filtration  is 
commenced. 

In  filtering  liquids  which  readily  mix  with  water,  this  is  very  important. 
The  fiber  of  filter-paper,  owing  to  its  porosity  when  dry,  absorbs  considera- 
ble water  by  capillary  attraction;  in  filtering  watery  solutions,  therefore, 
the  solid  which  was  held  in  solution  is  left  more  or  less  undissolved  in  the 
pores  by  the  attraction  of  the  water,  thus  preventing  the  penetration  of  the 
liquid.  With  saturated  solutions  this  is  so  marked  that  in  some  cases  they 
may  be  poured  upon  a  paper  filter,  not  previously  moistened,  without  any  of 
the  liquid  passing  through;  such  examples  we  have  in  syrups. 

The  filter,  accurately  plaited,  is  opened  out  completely  and  then  pushed 
into  the  neck  of  the  funnel,  as  before  described;  by  gently  pressing  the  top 
with  the  flat  hand,  while  held  there  firmly  to  prevent  its  slipping  up,  a  small 
stream  of  water  is  sent  into  the  funnel  by  means  of  a  wash-bottle  or 
:'spritz."  When  the  paper  has  become  in  the  least  moist,  it  will  adhere  to 
the  glass  without  danger  of  slipping,  and  the  hand  must  be  removed,  since 
the  least  pressure  will  rupture  the  paper.  The  funnel  is  now  gently  tumed 
by  the  hand  so  that  the  thin  stream  of  water  may  be  evenly  distributed,  then 
set  aside  for  a  few  minutes  to  allow  the  superfluous  water  to  drain  off,  when 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

During  the  operation  of  filtration,  the  following  points  should  be 
observed:  (i)  Provision  must  be  made  for  the  air  to  estate  from  the 
receiving  bottle;  (2)  the  filter  should  be  replenished  with  the  liquid 
so  as  to  be  completely  filled  as  long  as  the  quantity  permits,  and  ( $~) 
the  funnel  should  be  kept  corered. 

The  air  is  usually  allowed  to  escape  by  placing  a  loop  of  twine  in 
the  neck  of  the  receiving  bottle.  Funnels,  ribbed  on  the  outside,  are 
also  used  with  this  object  in  view,  but  these  do  not  answer  the  pur- 
pose as  well  as  the  twine,  for  the  reason  that  glass,  when  pressed 
into  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  becomes  frequently  wedged  in  so  tightly  as 
to  break  when  its  removal  is  attempted. 

The  more  liquid  in   the   filter,  the  greater  the  pressure,  and   there 


84 


METHODS   OF 


fore  the  more  rapid  the  filtration;  hardening  of  the  undissolved  matter, 
and  consequent  stopping  up  of  the  pores  of  the  paper,  may  be  pre- 
vented by  having  the  filter  as/////  of  the  liquid  as  possible. 

The  funnel  should  always  be  kept  well  covered,  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion; this  is  best  effected  by  the  use  of  pieces  of  rubber  packing,  which 
fit  closely  on  the  edge  of  the  funnel;  pieces  of  glass  or  cardboard  may 
also  be  used. 

The  filter-paper  must  never  extend  above,  the  top  of  the  funnel. 
The  plaited  filter,  previous  to  being  moistened,  should  be  inserted 
in  the  funnel  and  measured  as  to  length;  if  it  extends  beyond  the 
rim,  it  should  be  cut  off  evenly,  so  as  to  reach  rather  half  an  inch 
below  than  above  the  top.  This  is  done  partly  to  facilitate  covering 
the  funnel,  which  cannot  otherwise  be  effectually  done,  but  more 
especially  to  prevent  evaporation,  which  sometimes  takes  place  so 

rapidly,  when  the  filter  extends  con- 
siderably beyond  the  funnel,  as  to  carry 
some  of  the  liquid  down  the  outside. 
An  illustration  of  this  phenomenon, 
due  to  capillarity,  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying figure. 

}Vliite  filter-paper  is  rarely  used  in 
pharmacy;  it  is  well  adapted  for  the  an- 
alytical laboratory  and  for  filtering  acids 
and  alkaline  solutions  where  the  gray 
would  be  objectionable,  because  of  its 
colors  and  impurities  being  soluble  in  chemical  reagents. 

Its  principal  use  in  pharmacv  is  in  filtering  solutions  containing 
precipitates,  which  latter  it  is  desired  to  obtain  pure  by  washing  with 
water.  For  this  purpose  a  funnel  resembling  an  equilateral  triangle  is 
most  convenient,  since  the  precipitate  is  more  exposed  upon  the  sides 
than  in  the  ordinary  funnel  for  pharmacal  use.  This  filter-paper  is 
also  folded  in  quarters,  and  simply  dropped  into  the  funnel  to  adjust 
itself  by  the  weight  of  the  contents,  so  that  all  portions  of  the  precipi- 
tate may  be  washed  by  the  water  poured  upon  it.  This  filter-paper 
may  be  "toughened"  so  that  it  will  bear  the  weight  of  acids  and 
alkalies  by  immersing  it  in  strong  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.40),  and  then 
washing  with  water.  Paper  treated  similarly  with  sulphuric  acid  be- 
comes also  very  strong,  but  is  not  easily  permeated  by  liquids.  This 
is  the  substance  known  as  parchment. 

Various  devices  are  in  use  for  facilitating  filtration,  such  as  filter- 


CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION. 


FILTRATION. 


racks,  made  of  wire,  also  supports,  consisting  of  a  china  cone  with 
openings  in  the  sides,  to  be  placed  inside  the  funnel,  etc.  These  do 
not  insure  such  rapid  filtration  as  by  the  simple  funnel  with  attention 
to  the  above  rules. 

Continuous  filtration  is  employed  when  larger  quantities  are  to  be 
filtered,  and  when  the  filter  is  of  limited  capacity. 

It  may  be  effected  by  inverting  the  bottle  con- 
taining the  liquid  over  the  funnel  through  an 
opening  in  the  cover,  which  admits  the  neck 
below  the  top  of  the  filter,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. By  this  arrangement  the  filter  is  kept 
filled  with  liquid  up  to  the  level  of  the  neck  of 
the  inverted  bottle  as  long  as  any  liquid  remains 
in  the  receiver,  the  liquid  acting  as  a  valve,  by 
excluding  the  air  from  the  latter.  As  soon  as 
the  liquid  in  the  filter  sinks  below  the  neck  of 
the  container,  air  rushes  in  and  displaces  it  until 
the  level  is  again  reached,  thus  working  auto- 
matically. The  splashing  by  the  outrushing 
air  may  in  a  great  measure  be  prevented  by  in- 
serting a  perforated  cork  in  the  neck  of  the  con- 
tainer, so  that  the  displacement  will  take  place 
more  gradually. 

Filtration  in  vacito  is  accomplished  by  ex- 
hausting the  air  from  the  receiving  vessel  with 
an  air-pump.  It  is  chiefly  employed  in  the 
chemical  laboratory  in  filtering  viscid  alkaline 
solutions,  or  such  liquids  as  act  upon  the  filter- 
paper,  causing  it  to  retard  their  flow.  A  small  perforated  cap  of  platinum 
is  placed  in  the  neck  of  the  funnel  to  prevent  the  point  of  the  filter  from 
breaking  by  the  suction  created.  The  mercury  pump  is  the  means  employed 
in  small  operations  for  producing  a  vacuum;  in  the  arts  pumps  worked  by 
steam  power  are  used. 

The  filtration  of  oils  is  effected  either  in  the  cold,  or  through 
heated  filters. 

In  the  cold,  oils  require  to  be  filtered  through  substances  more  porous 
than  paper,  i.  <•.,  cotton,  flannel,  etc.  Few  oils  (fixed)  can  be  filtered  when 
cold,  especially  the  vegetable  oils,  cottonseed,  castor  oil,  etc.,  since  they 
contain  a  large  percentage  of  gum.  By  gently  heating  them,  however,  by 
the  water-bath  filter,  they  may  be  filtered  without  difficulty;  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  filtration  does  not  take  place  at  too  high  a  temperature,  lest 
they  become  cloudy  again  upon  cooling. 

Hot  or  water-bath  filters  are  constructed  in  different  ways,  the  most 
common  form  being  an  ordinary  funnel  placed  in  a  double  or  jacketed 
cone  of  tinned  iron  filled  with  water,  and  furnished  with  a  projecting 
tube  which  is  heated  by  a  spirit-lamp. 


CONTINUOUS   FILTRATION. 


86 


FILTERING  MEDIA. 


Filtering  media,  other  than  those  mentioned,  are: 

Absorbent  Cotton,  for  neutral  mobile  liquids.  This  is  especially  useful  for 
filtering  small  quantities  of  liquids.  A  small  pledget  is  pressed  into  the 
neck  of  the  funnel  and  held  in  place  with  a  glass-rod  while  the  liquid  is 
poured  in. 

Sand  is  sometimes  a  very  useful  filtering 
medium,  and  is  especially  adapted  in  connec- 
tion with  alternate  layers  of  charcoal  for  filter- 
ing large  quantities  of  water.  Pumice-stone 
powder  is  frequently  mixed  with  gummy  or 
resinous  substances  to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
liquid  solvents. 

Sponge  is  used  for  straining,  but  does  not 
present  any  advantage,  since  it  is  difficult  to 
clean  perfectly  and  too  costly  to  reject  wher. 
once  used. 

Chamois  skin  is  sometimes  used  as  a  filter-cloth 
when  pressure  is  applied.  Owing  to  its  great 
strength  it  is  not  liable  to  rupture. 

WATER-BATH  FUNNEL.  STRAINING. 

Straining  differs  from  filtration  mainly  in 

that  more  porous  media  are  used  for  filtering  the  liquids  than  filter- 
paper. 

This  operation  is  usually  applied  to  more  viscid  liquids  or  mixtures 
to  free  them  from  gross  impurities,  as,  for  example,  in  the  making  of 
syrups. 

The  materials  most  frequently  used  for  straining  are:  Canton 
Flannei,  Felt-bags,  Cotton,  Unbleached  Muslin  and  Calico. 

For  small  quantities,  flannel,  or  a  plug  of  absorbent  cotton,  placed  tightly 
in  the  neck  of  a  funnel,  are  the  most  convenient. 

For  large  operations,  as  in  making  the  syrups  by  the  gallon,  a  felt  bag  is 
the  most  convenient  and  satisfactory  means,  since  the  whole  amount  of 
liquid  may  be  poured  in  at  once  and  returned  to  the  bag  until  it  runs  clear. 

The  tenacle,  consisting  of  four  pieces  of  wood  joined  together  so  as  to 
form  a  square,  and  furnished  in  each  corner  with  a  projection  upon  which 
the  filter  is  fastened,  is  a  convenient  device  for  suspending  the  bag  or  filter 
cloths  above  the  receiving  vessel.  It  may  be  supported  by  a  stand,  or  sus- 
pended from  the  ceiling  by  a  hook. 

In  straining  syrups,  it  is  even  more  important  that  the  strainer  be 
thoroughly  moistened  with  water  than  in  filtration  through  paper. 

When  a  felt  bag  is  used  it  should  be  soaked  in  water  until  completely 
saturated,  then  wrung  out  or  pressed  as  hard  as  possible  to  free  it  from 
superfluous  water.  When  the  liquid  to  be  strained  is  poured  in,  it  displaces 
the  water,  which  first  comes  through  almost  pure,  and  should  be  returned 


STRAINING. 


to  the  filter.  Since  a  considerable  portion  of  the  liquid  remains  in  the  pores 
of  the  filter  at  the  close  of  the  process,  it  should  be  also  displaced  by  the  ad- 
dition of  sufficient  water  to  make  up  the  measure,  but  the  product  should 
then  be  carefully  mixed  so  as  to  be  of  uniform  composition. 

CLARIFICATION. 

When  a  liquid  contains  insoluble 
matter  suspended  in  so  finely  divided 
a  form  that  it  cannot  be  separated  by 
simple  filtration,  some  other  insoluble 
substance  is  added  to  which  the  in- 
soluble matter  is  attracted,  or  the 
chemical  character  of  the  liquid  is 
changed  so  that  it  may  be  obtained 
clear — clarified. 

Clarification  may  be  either  phar- 
macal  or  chemical. 

When  clarification  is  effected  by 
pharmacal  means,  or  filtration,  the 
insoluble  substances  used  form  a  layer 
over  the  filter,  which  retards  the  in- 
soluble matter  but  does  not  impede  the 
flow  of  the  liquid. 

The  substances  used  for  this  purpose 
in  order  of  their  merits  are: 

(i)  Paper  pulp,  prepared  by  beat- 
ing in  a  bright  iron-mortar  a  sheet 
of  gray  filter-paper,  moistened  with 
sufficient  water  to  make  a  pasty  mass. 


FELT-BAG  STRAINER  WITH 
TENACLE. 


After  pressing  out  the  water,  the  pulp 
is  added  to  the  liquid  and  thoroughly 
mixed  by  agitation.  In  commencing 

filtration  the  first  portions  of  the  filtrate  must  be  returned  to  the  filter  until 
the  pulp  has  formed  a  layer  over  the  sides,  after  which  the  product  is  ob- 
tained clear.  Paper  pulp  is  especially  useful  in  filtering  elixirs  and  straining 
syrups. 

(2)  Insoluble  chemical  substances,  such  as  Calcium  Phosphate,  and  Tal- 
cum; also  Magnesium  Carbonate. 

Since  substances  used  for  clarification  must  be  insoluble  in  the  ii:;uid, 
that  they  may  not  contaminate  the  filtrate,  Magnesium  Carbonate  is  ob- 
jectionable owing  to  its  slight  solubility  in  water,  especially  if  the  latter  be 
acid.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  superseded  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  by  Calcium 
Phosphate,  which  is  nearly  insoluble  in  neutral  liquids. 


88  CLARIFICATION   AND    DECOLORATION. 

The  Chemical  methods  of  clarification  are: 

(1)  The  use  of  Albumen  in  the  form  of  egg-white  which  effects 
clarification  by  chemical  means  through  combining  with  the  soluble 
matter  and  forming  insoluble  compounds,  which  are  usually  thrown 
to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid — precipitated. 

By  the  application  of  heat  albumen  coagulates,  envelops  the  insoluble 
particles  and  makes  the  liquid  clear,  as  in  the  clarification  of  "coffee"  by  the 
addition  of  egg-white. 

Gelatin  forms  a  very  insoluble  compound  with  tannic  acid,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  preparation  of  leather;  and  as  the  insoluble  substances  which 
we  desire  to  reject  by  clarification  are  mostly  tannic  acid  derivatives,  its 
value  for  this  purpose  is  clearly  recognized  and  it  is  extensively  employed 
in  the  form  of  Isinglass  for  the  clarification  of  Beer. 

(2)  Another  method  employed  for  the  purpose  of  clarification  is 
the  process  of  Fermentation. 

Some  liquids,  as  the  expressed  juices  of  Fruits,  often  contain  insoluble 
matter  in  so  finely  suspended  condition  as  to  make  its  removal  by  mechan- 
ical means  impossible.  By  permitting  such  liquids  to  undergo  fermenta- 
tion, the  sugar,  through  which  the  particles  are  kept  in  suspension,  is  con- 
verted into  alcohol,  in  which  the  suspended  matter  is  also  insoluble  and 
therefore  is  precipitated  and  easily  removed.  The  clarification  of  apple- 
juice  and  grape-juice  in  the  making  of  Cider  and  Wine  respectively,  are 
good  examples. 

DECOLORATION. 

When  it  is  desired  to  free  a  liquid  from  color,  it  is  easily  effected 
by  filtration  through  some  absorbent  substance,  such  as  charcoal.  The 
operation  is  called  Decoloration,  or  "Decolorization." 

It  is  purely  a  physical  process  designed  to  remove  the  coloring 
principle  through  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  agent  employed. 

Animal  Charcoal,  the  agent  usually  selected,  is  a  mass  of  minute  pores  to 
which  many  substances  in  solution  are  attracted  and  by  them  retained. 

The  liquid  is  permitted  to  flow  through  a  layer  of  the  Charcoal  in  coarse 
powder,  or  granulated,  placed  upon  some  porous  media  in  a  funnel.  Alter- 
nate layers  of  Sand  and  Charcoal  are  very  effective  in  decolorizing  and 
purifying  water,  and  also  to  free  it  from  organic  impurities,  which  the  char- 
coal absorbs. 

Distinction  must  be  made  between  decoloration  as  a  form  of  Filtration 
and  the  term  frequently  but  erroneously  employed  to  designate  a  substance 
deprived  of  color  by  chemical  reaction. 

Funnels  used  in  filtration  should  he  of  glass,  in  order  that  the 
operation  may  he  watched;  also  because  they  are  easily  cleaned,  and 
not  acted  upon  by  chemicals. 

The  shape  of  a  funnel  for  filtering  purposes  should  be  that  of  a  V 


FUNNELS. 


89 


rather  than  one  so  wide  at  the  top  as  the  glass  funnels  generally  found 
in  the  shops;  one  having  an  angle  of  45  degrees  will  filter  much  more 
rapidly  than  one  of  90  degrees. 

This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  column  of  the  liquid  is  thereby 
heightened  and  the  pressure  increased  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the 
liquid. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  tube  portion  of  the 
funnel  should  be  as  wide  as  possible;  grad- 
ually sloping  fora  distance  of  several  inches, 
or  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  funnel, 
about  one-third  the  length  of  the  tube.  The 
end  of  the  tube,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
the  "neck"  of  the  funnel,  should  not  be  too 
thick,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  since  this 
prevents  inserting  the  funnel  in  the  neck  of 
bottles,  but  should  be  of  a  thickness  uniform 
with  that  of  the  glass  in  the  other  part  of  the 
funnel. 

The  wash-bottle,  or  "spritz"  is  a  very  use- 
ful adjunct  in  pharmaceutical  work  for  wash- 
ing precipitates,  wetting  filters,  and  for  in- 
troducing small  quantities  of  water  in  test- 
tubes,  etc.  It  consists  of  a  rather  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  furnished  with  a  perforated 
cork,  into  which  two  bent  glass  tubes  are 

introduced,  one  reaching  down  into  the  liquid  WASH-BOTTLE. 

and   a    shorter  one    ending  just    above   the 

surface.  By  blowing  in  the  short  tube,  the  air,  pressing  upon  the  surfice 
of  the  liquid,  causes  it  to  rise  in  the  long  tube,  and  to  flow  out  at  the  con- 
tracted end  in  a  fine  stream  with  considerable  force. 


Crystallization. 


Many  substances,  tinder  certain  conditions,  particularly  when  pass- 
ing from  a  fluid  to  a  solid  state,  arrange  themselves  in  regular  geo- 
metric forms.  Such  forms  are  called  Crystals  (from  Krystaino,  Gr., 
freeze,  congeal)  and  the  process  is  termed  crystallization. 

Substances  which  crystallize  are  termed  crystallizable,  while  those 
that  do  not,  as  shellac,  glue  and  glass,  are  called  amorphous.  In 
assuming  the  crystalline  form  bodies  tend  to  reject  foreign  matter,  and 
crystallization  is  therefore  an  important  process  in  the  purification 
of  many  substances. 

When  the  regular  external  form  of  crystals  is  wanting,  but  present  in 
the  interior,  the  body  is  said  to  have  a  crystalline  structure.  Small 
irregular  forms  are  called  crystalline  powder. 

The  science  descriptive  of  crystals,  called  crystallography,  treats  of 
the  various  forms  of  crystals.  It  needs  but  a  brief  reference  in  these 
Lectures. 

T he/6vv;/  of  a  crystal  depends  upon  its  planes  or  faces.  The  point 
of  union  of  two  faces  is  called  an  edge;  of  more  than  two  faces,  an 
angle.  The  forms  of  crystals  are  determined  by  imaginary  lines  drawn 
vertically  to  the  faces  or  from  opposite  angles,  to  intersect  each  other 
in  a  common  central  point  and  form  angles  corresponding  to  the 
boundary  angles.  These  lines  indicate  the  directions  in  which  the 
molecules  arrange  themselves,  according,  as  it  is  supposed,  to  the 
polar  force  and  they  are  termed  the  axes  of  the  crystal. 

According  to  the  number  of  these  axes,  their  relative  lengths  and  the 
angles  at  which  the  lines  intersect  in  the  crystal,  there  are  six  different 
systems  of  crystallization  as  follows: 

1.  The  Isometric  or    Regular,   having  three  axes  of  equal  length 
intersecting  at  right  angles. 

2.  Tetragonal,  Rhombic,  or  Quadratic,  having  two  axes   of  equal 
and  one  of  unequal  length  intersecting  at  right  angles. 

3.  Ortho-Rombic,    or    Trimetric,     having    three    axes  of   unequal 
length,  intersecting  at  right  angles. 

4.  Monoclinic,  or  oblique  Prismatic,  having  three  axes  of  unequal 
lengths,   two    obliquely  inclined  to  each   other,  intersected  at   right 
angles  by  a  third. 


CRYSTALLIZATION.  g\ 

5.  Tridinic,    or    Doubly  oblique,    having    three  axes  of  unequal 
length,  all  obliquely  inclined  to  each  other. 

6.  Hexagonal,  or  Rombohedric,  having  one  axis  of  unequal  length 
intersecting  three  of  unequal  length  at  right  angles. 

The  following  terms  are  commonly  employed  to  designate  shapes  of 
crystals: 

Prismatic,  shaped  like  a  prism. 

Tabular,  with  a  flat  (table)  top. 

Laminar,  in  thin  plates  or  scales  (flakes). 

Acicular,  needle-shaped. 

When  a  substance  crystallizes  according  to  more  than  one  system  it  is 
said  to  be  ///-,  tri-,  or poly-morphous  as  it  assumes  two,  three,  or  several  forms 
respectively. 

Isomorphous  is  the  term  given  to  such  substances  as  crystallize  in  the  same 
form. 

Many  substances,  in  the  process  of  crystallization,  combine  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  water,  which  is  called  water  of  crystallization.  This  water 
is  usually  present  in  definite  proportions  and  is  so  given  in  the  Molecular 
Formula  of  chemicals,  as,  for  example,  FeSO4-j~7H2O,  means  that  Ferrous 
Sulphate  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.  contains  7  molecules  of  water  of  crystallization. 

When  such  substances  are  deprived  of  their  water  of  crystallization  they 
are  said  to  be  exsiccateJ,  or  dried  (Ferri  Sulphas  Exsiccatus). 

When  the  water  is  simply  enclosed  mechanically  in  the  crystals,  as  in 
Potassium  Xitrate,  it  is  called  interstitial  water. 

Crystals  may  be  formed  in  a  variety  of  ways: 

(1)  By  sublimation.—  Such  substances  as  Iodine,  Camphor.  Sulphur, 
Calomel,  Corrosive  Sublimate,    Ammonium  Chloride  and   Carbonate 
may  by  this  means  be  freed  from  foreign  materials. 

(2)  "Ry  fusion. — Many  substances,  as   Sulphur,  the  metals  IJismuth 
and  Antimony,  and  some  salts,  assume  the  crystalline  form  on  cooling 
from  fusion.      This  method    has   fe\v  important   applications   in  phar- 
macy.     Of  much  greater  importance  is  the  next  method. 

(3)  By  cooling  from  solution,  or  by  evaporation  of  the  solvent.      In 
the  former  case  a  saturated  solution   of    the   substance   is  made   in   an 
evaporating  dish  or  other  shallow  vessel,  at  an   elevated   temperature, 
and  the  solution  is  allowed   to   stand   until   cold.      After   the   crystals 
have  been  deposited  the  mother  liquid  is  drained  off. 

Usually  not  all  of  the  substance  crystallizes  out  at  the  first  trial;  the 
mother  liquid  should  therefore  be  concentrated  by  heat  and  again  allowed 
to  cool,  and  the  process  repeated  so  long  as  crystals  continue  to  form. 

In  case  large  and  well-formed  crystals  are  desired,  the  solution  should 
not  be  too  strongly  concentrated  at  first,  and  the  crystals  should  be  per- 
mitted to  form  slowly,  and  if  the  nature  of  the  liquid  will  admit,  by  ..yV;/- 
ianeous  evaporation  of  the  solvent. 


92  PRECIPITATION. 

In  case  crystals  are  required  in  the  form  of  fine  granules,  the  solution 
should  be  concentrated  until  crystals  begin  to  form  around  the  edges  of  the 
dish,  and  then  the  solution  should  be  cooled  rapidly  and  stirred  during  the 
cooling.  In  many  cases  the  application  of  heat  may  be  continued  until  the 
solvent  is  evaporated,  keeping  up  in  the  meantime  the  stirring.  This 
method  is  called  granulation. 

Where  the  solvent  is  a  highly  volatile  substance  like  ether,  benzol  or  car- 
bon disulphide,  a  cold  saturated  solution  is  made,  and  the  solvent  allowed  to 
evaporate  spontaneously.  By  dissolving  Sulphur  in  carbon  disulphide  fine 
crystals  of  the  former  substance  may  be  obtained  by  this  method. 

(4)  By  addition  oi  a  substance  to  a  solution  of  a  crystallizable  body, 
whereby  the  solvent  power  of  the  liquid  is  diminished  and  the  dis- 
solved matter  is  thrown  out  in  the  form  of  crystals. 

This  may  be  effected  in  two  different  ways:  The  addition  of  a  soluble 
solid  having  affinity  for  the  liquid,  which,  passing  into  solution,  produces  a 
supersaturated  solution,  thus  throwing  the  original  dissolved  matter  out  of 
solution  which  serves  as  a  nucleus  for  the  formation  of  crystals.  For 
example,  Glucose,  in  watery  solution,  does  not  crystallize,  but  upon 
the  addition  of  a  crystal  of  anhydrous  Glucose  it  at  once  forms  a  crystalline 
mass,  if  the  solution  be  concentrated. 

It  may  also  be  effected  by  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  solvent,  as  by 
the  addition  of  Alcoholic  liquids,  Tinctures,  etc.,  to  saturated  solutions  of 
Sugar,  in  the  precipitation  of  Salts  in  aqueous  solution  by  the  addition  of 
Alcohol,  etc. 

(5)  By  Chemical  Reaction  in  a  solution  by  which  an  insoluble  or  less 
soluble  substance  is  formed,  which  appears  as  a  crystalline  precipitate. 

PRECIPITATION. 

Precipitation  as  a  chemical  process  is  the  operation  whereby  an  in- 
soluble compound  is  formed  from  mixing  the  solutions  of  t\vo  or  more 
soluble  compounds.  The  product  is  termed  a  precipitate. 

In  a  chemical  sense,  precipitation  is  always  the  result  of  a  chemical 
decomposition,  new  compounds  being  formed.  Since  the  result  de- 
pends upon  the  insolubility  of  the  newly-formed  compounds,  this  pro- 
cess can  only  be  employed  where  the  product  is  known  to  be  insoluble. 

For  example,  when  two  soluble  salts,  Potassium  Iodide  and  Lead  Acetatet 
are  dissolved  separately,  and  their  solutions  mixed,  a  chemical  change 
takes  place,  due  to  an  interchange  of  the  elementry  constituents  of  the  sub- 
stances, and  new  compounds  are  formed — Lead  Iodide,  which,  being  in- 
soluble- in  water,  is  precipitated,  and  Potassium  Acetate,  which  is  soluble 
and  remains  in  solution  in  the  water. 

The  term  precipitation  is  also  applied  to  any  substance  which  is  thrown 
out  of  a  solution  from  a  liquid,  as,  for  example,  precipitates  in  Tinctures. 

The  compound  in  solution  is  separated  either  by  Recantation,  when  hea<ry  or 
crystalline,  or  by  filtration,  when  flocculent  or  gelatinous. 


DECANTATION. 


93 


When  a  precipitate  is  desired  in  a  pure  form  it  is  necessary  to  wash 
and  dry  it.  The  precipitated  matter  is  washed  by  transferring  it  to  a 
filter,  and  after  having  been  drained,  small  portions  of  liquid,  usually 
distilled  water,  is  poured  upon  it.  After  having  again  been  drained 
it  is  dried,  either  in  a  drying-oven  or  by  simple  exposure  to  the  air. 

Decantation  is  the  simp- 
lest method  for  the  separa- 
tion of  Liquids.  It  is  effect- 
ed by  pouring  the  liquid 
into  a  tall  and  narrow 
vessel  and  after  subsidence 
of  the  heavier,  or  insoluble 
portion,  the  clear  liquor  is 
poured  off. 

In  pouring  from  such  ves- 
sels, especially  when  not 
furnished  with  a  lip,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  guiding 


rod,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion to  prevent  the  liquid  from 
running  down  the  outside. 

Other  methods  of  separ- 
ating liquids  are  by  means 
of  the  Syphon,  which  de- 
pends for  its  action  upon  the  qa^ntky  of  the  liquid  in  the  longer  and 
lower  end  of  the  tube,  and  the  Pippcne  and  Burette,  glass-tubes  with 
bulbs,  which  are  also  used  for  ine  accurate  measurement  of  liquids. 


FOVKING  WITH  GLASS-ROD. 


Extraction. 

Extraction  is  the  process  by  which  the  soluble  matter  of  organic 
drugs  is  obtained  or  separated  from  the  insoluble  portion.  When  ex- 
traction is  completely  effected  the  drug  is  said  to  be  exhausted. 

Extraction  may  be  effected  by  either  of  the  following  operations: 

(1)  Maceration,  Expression  and  Filtration. 

(2)  Maceration  with  heat,  Expression  and  Straining. 

(3)  Maceration  and  Percolation. 

Maceration  consists  in  mixing  the  drug,  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder, 
with  the  liquid  used  for  extraction  (the  menstruum) ,  and  allowing  the 
mixture  to  stand  for  some  time  (from  i  to  36  hours,  according  to  the 
proportion  of  the  menstruum  used  and  the  nature  of  the  drug) . 

When  the  soluble  ."natter  of  the  drug  has  become  dissolved  in  the  men- 
struum, it  is  obtained  as  a  clear  liquid  free  from  the  insoluble  portion,  the 
marc,  by  expression. 

Expression  is  the  operation  of  straining  through  a  suitable  cloth 
with  pressure  exerted  either  by  hand  or  by  a  screw-press. 

The  most  effective  way  of  expressing  by  hand  is  to  fold  together  the  edges 
of  the  press-cloth  so  that  one  overlaps  the  other  (as  in  wrapping  a  paper 
package)  the  ends  being  meanwhile  gathered  up  so  as  to  prevent  the  mix- 
ture  running  out.  These  ends  are  then  twisted  in  opposite  directions,  care 
being  taken  that  the  middle  fold  does  not  give  way. 

The  custom  of  adding  a  portion  of  menstruum  to  the  marc  (drug)  after 
expressing  :t,  is  not  to  be  recommended,  unless  necessary  to  make  up  thf 
measure  of  the  product.  It  is  preferable  to  use  as  much  more  menstruurr 
originally  as  will  be  retained  by  the  marc,  which  can  easily  be  approxi- 
mated by  experience  and  observation. 

In  extracting  a  drug  by  simple  maceration  the  temperature  should 
be  moderately  warm,  as  the  solvent  action  on  the  drug  is  then  greater. 

In  extraction  by  any  form  of  maceration,  with  or  without  heat,  the 
drug  must  be  in  a  coarse  powder. 

When  in  fine  powder  the  small  particles  of  drug  rapidly  swell  and  adhere 
to  each  other  as  soon  as  they  come  in  contact  with  the  liquid,  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  solvent  action  of  the  menstruum.  The  expression  of  the  liquid  is 
also  more  difficult  when  fine  powder  has  been  used,  since  the  fine  portions 
clog  the  pores  of  the  press-cloth. 

When  a  drug  is  macerated  in  hot  water  for  a  short  time,  by  pouring 
boiling  water  upon  it  in  a  well-covered  vessel,  the  liquid  obtained  by 


MACERATION   AND   DIGESTION.  95 

expression,   upon  the  cooling  of  the  mixture,  is  termed  an  Infusion. 
The  U.  S.  Ph.  gives  a  general  process  for  the  Infusions. 

Drugs  containing  volatile  principles,  /.  e.,  Chamomile,  Valerian,  etc.,  are 
frequently  prescribed  in  this  form.  The  boiling  water  extracts  these  prin- 
ciples,  and  if  a  proper  vessel  be  used,  such  as  the  "Infusion  Mug,"  which 
can  be  tightly  covered,  the  water  will  gradually  condense,  retaining  the 
fugitive  constituents.  Infusion  from  drugs  whose  active  principles  art 
volatilized  by  heat,  are  prepared  by  simple  maceration  in  the  cold,  i.  e.,  In 
fusum  Pruni  Virginianoe. 

Digestion  is  maceration  in  conjunction  with  heat.  When  a  moder- 
ate heat  is  applied  to  facilitate  extraction  in  connection  with  maceration 
the  process  is  termed  digestion. 

When  the  mixture  is  boiled  for  some  time  the  liquid  product  ob- 
tained by  expression  is  termed  a  Decoction.  For  these  a  general  pro- 
cess is  given  in  the'U.  S.  Ph. 

PERCOLATION. 

As  extraction  is  the  most  common  of  pharmacal  processes  so  is  per- 
colation the  most  important  related  operation,  since  it  is  the  most 
effective,  economical  and  expeditious  method  for  the  extraction  of  the 
medicinal  principles  of  drugs. 

The  process  of  Percolation  as  directed  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '90,  con- 
sists in  subjecting  a  substance,  or  a  mixture  of  substances  in  powder, 
contained  in  a  vessel  called  a  Percolator,  to  the  solvent  action  of  suc- 
cessive portions  of  a  certain  menstruum,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
liquid,  as  it  traverses  the  powder  in  its  descent  to  the  receiver,  shall  Lt 
charged  with  the  soluble  portion  of  it  and  pass  from  the  percolator 
free  from  insoluble  matter,  this  product  being  termed  the  Percolate. 

This  process  is  also  called  displacement,  because  it  is  based  upon  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  solvent,  after  being  charged  with  the  soluble  constituents  oi 
the  drug,  is  displaced  by  fresh  portions  of  the  solvent  liquid;  partly  from 
its  own  weight,  partly  from  the  pressure  of  the  supernatant  liquid;  it  con- 
tinues to  be  displaced  until  the  process  is  interrupted. 

By  continuing  the  supply  of  solvent,  which  is  termed  menstruum  (plural, 
menstrua)  when  used  in  extraction,  the  displacement  of  the  liquid  in  which 
the  soluble  matter  is  in  solution  may  be  effected  until  no  more  is  to  be  dis- 
solved from  the  drug,  when  it  is  said  to  be  exhausted. 

The  exhaustion  of  a  drug  is  generally  determined  by  the  absence  of  color 
and  taste  of  the  percolate. 

With  resinous  drugs  it  may  be  conveniently  determined  by  mixing  a  fe^ 
drops  of  the  percolate  with  water;  if  exhausted,  the  percolate  will  not  turn 
the  water  milky.  In  percolating  drugs  containing  alkaloids,  complete  ex 
haustion  has  been  effected  when  the  percolate  does  not  show  any  precipita- 
tion with  reagents  for  alkaloids. 


96  PERCOLATION. 

This  is  called  simple  percolation,  and  is  the  process  usually  followed 
in  the  preparation  of  tinctures,  wherein  the  quantity  of  menstruum  is 
largely  in  excess  of  the  drug  to  be  exhausted. 

When  employed,  however,  for  more  concentrated  preparations,  viz., 
Fluid  Extracts,  where  the  volume  of  the  product  must  correspond  with  the 
quantity  of  drug  used  in  the  extraction  measure  for  weight,  it  is  necessary  to 
concentrate  the  percolate.  The  first  three-fourths  portion  of  percolate  con- 
tains nearly  a  corresponding  proportion  of  the  principles  of  the  drug,  while 
the  remaining  one-fourth  of  the  soluble  matter  requires  usually  a  much 
greater  amount  of  menstruum  before  it  can  be  displaced.  The  three-fourths 
portion  of  the  percolate  is,  therefore,  reserved,  and  extraction  continued  until 
the  exhaustion  is  complete;  the  percolate  thus  obtained,  being  very  dilute  or 
li'eak,  is  concentrated  to  the  required  bulk,  with  the  application  of  the  least 
possible  amount  of  heat,  and  then  mixed  with  the  reserved  percolate.  (See 
Preliminary  Notices — Percolation  U.  S.  Ph.,  '90,  p.  xl-xlii.) 

Fractional  or  re-percolation,  introduced  by  Dr.  E.  R.  Squibb,  is  a 
process  by  which  the  drug  may  be  exhausted  volume  for  weight,  with- 
out entailing  evaporation. 

It  differs  from  simple  percolation  in  that  the  drug  is  divided  into  four 
portions,  and  packed  in  as  many  different  percolators;  each  portion  is 
treated  as  in  simple  percolation,  except  that  the  weak  percolate  obtained 
from  each  is  used  to  moisten  and  extract  each  succeeding  portion,  the  first 
percolate  being  reserved  and  mixed  finally  with  the  percolate  from  the  last 
percolator,  when  their  combined  volume  corresponds  to  the  weight  of  the  drug. 

Simultaneous  fractional  percolation  is  a  modification  of  the  process  of 
re-percolation  recommended  by  C.  S.  Hallberg,  differing  in  that  the  entire 
quantity  of  the  drug  may  be  moistened  at  once,  packed  into  four  percolators 
and  the  process  completed  in  a  much  shorter  time. 

To  conduct  percolation  successfully,  the  following  points  must  be 
observed: 

(1)  Appropriateness  of  the  apparatus. 

(2)  Degree  of  fineness  of  the  powdered  drug. 

(3)  Care  in  the  moistening  and  the  packing. 

(4)  The  use  of  proper  menstrua. 

The  Apparatus  employed  in  percolation  is  simply  a  vessel  to  con- 
tain the  drug,  a  receiving  bottle,  and  sometimes  a  tube  to  carry  the 
percolate  into  the  receiver  without  loss  by  evaporation,  and  to  regu- 
late the  flow. 

Formerly  glass  Funnels  were  much  used  for  percolation.  While 
these  answer  fairly  well  when  the  product  is  not  desired  too  concen- 
trated as  in  the  extraction  for  Tinctures,  they  have  been  superseded 
quite  generally  of  late  by  percolators. 

A  Percolator  is  a  funnel  with  more  or  less  cylindrical  rather  than 


PERCOLATORS.  97 

conical  sides,  which  are  deeper  proportionately  than  those  of  a  funnel. 
The  outlet  tube,  or  "neck,"  is  shorter  and  made  thicker  than  in  a 
funnel.  They  are  made  of  glass,  tinned  iron,  earthenware  and  wood. 

Gla:s.  percolators  are  to  be  preferred,  because  in  packing  the  drug  tht 
operator  is  enabled  to  see  the  material  from  the  outside,  and  thus  obtain 
better  results;  also  because  the  percolation  can  be  observed  in  its  various 
stages,  and  proper  means  taken  to  render  it  more  effective  if  necessary. 
The  rate  of  extraction  and  exhaustion,  when  completed,  may  easily  be 
recognized,  also  when  the  menstrua  has  sunk  below  the  surface  of  the 
drug,  the  necessity  of  replenishing  will  be  at  once  noticed. 

Tin  percolators,  though  largely  used,  are  in  most  instances  objectionable, 
not  only  because  they  are  lacking  in  the  advantages  of  glass,  which  alone 
should  be  sufficient  to  condemn  their  use,  but  also  in  that  the  material  frorr. 
which  they  are  made  is  usually  acted  upon  by  drugs.  When  drugs  contain- 
ing acids,  /'.  <•. ,  Cinchona,  Rhubarb,  etc.,  are  percolated  in  tin  percolators, 
the  reaction  is  so  great  as  to  contaminate  the  percolate,  which  may  be 
detected  by  a  darker  coloration  (due  to  the  presence  of  tannate  of  iron) 
ihan  in  products  where  glass  vessels  have  been  employed.  In  tin  o.;rc<r 
lators  the  soldering  seam  is  seldom  air-tight,  resulting  in  evaporation  aaj 
loss,  both  of  alcohol  and  percolate  and  as  found  in  the  market,  they  are 
rarely  correctly  constructed  as  to  shape  or  dimensions. 

ll'ood  and  earthenware  percolators  are  largely  used  in  manufacturing, 
where  glass  would  be  too  fragile  or  too  expensive,  for  percolating  urugs 
which  would  affect  metal,  or  when  chemical  menstrua  are  used. 

A  Pressure  Percolator  is  fitted  with  an  air-tight  cover  through  which  tne 
menstruum  is  supplied  to  the  drug  by  a  tube,  connected  with  a  reservoir 
containing  the  menstrua.  The  reservoir  being  placed  high  above  the  per- 
colator, the  liquid  is  forced  through  the  drug  by  hydrostatic  pressure.  The 
Anderson  and  the  Suit's  are  the  best. 

Percolators  suitable  for  pharmacopceial  quantities  should  be  nearly 
cylindrical  or  slightly  conical.  The  neck  should  be  short  and  become 
gradually  narrow  at  the  opening  in  the  percolator  so  as  readily  to  admit 
the  insertion  of  a  cork  with  a  glass-tube.  Fitted  to  the  tube  is  a  piece 
of  rubber-tubing,  about  one-fourth  longer  than  the  percolator  itseK 
This  is  attached  to  the  body  of  the  percolator  by  a  rubber  band. 

By  raising  the  tube  to  the  level  of  the  liquid  in  the  percolator,  the  flow 
is  interrupted.  By  lowering  the  tube  the  flow  may  be  regulated  to  be 
either  fast  or  slo-v.  For  the  receiver,  any  bottle  will  answer,  but  a  graduated 
wide-mouthed  bottle  is  the  best.  In  the  absence  of  a  graduated  "etched" 
bottle,  one  may  easily  be  improvised  by  placing  a  narrow  strip  of  cloth  ad- 
hesive plaster  lengthwise  upon  the  bottle,  measuring  into  it  water  by  the 
cubic  centimeter  and  then  marking  the  strip  carefully  at  the  level  of  the 
water.  A  strip  of  paper  pasted  on  the  bottle  may  also  be  used,  but  it  then 
requires  a  coat  of  varnish. 


98  RULES    FOR 

The  rate  of  flow  of  the  percolate  for  .the  pharmacopoeia!  quantities 
should  not  exceed  from  ten  to  thirty  drops  per  minute. 

The  proper  fineness  of  drugs  for  percolation  is  very  essential  to  the 
success  of  the  process.  If  the  drug  is  in  too  coarse  a  powder,  ex- 
haustion will  not  he  complete;  if  too  fine  percolation  may  cease. 

With  most  drugs,  the  degree  of  fineness  of  the  powder  suitable  for 
percolation  is  directed  by  number  (see  Sifting,  Lecture  II)  in  the 
U.  S.  Ph. 

In  drugs  not  officially  recognized,  the  number  of  powder  used  should  be 
the  same  as  that  of  an  official  drug  containing  similar  constituents.  [For 
:he  general  law  and  principles  governing  the  degree  of  fineness  of  drugs  for 
extraction,  see  "Comminution,"  Lecture  II.] 

Packing. — A  drug  should  always  be  moistened  and  allowed  to 
macerate  in  order  to  swell,  before  packing  it  in  the  percolator. 

The  powdered  drug,  contained  in  a  shallow  dish,  is  uniformly 
,-prinkled  and  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  sufficient  menstruum  to 
;ause  it  to  adhere  in  a  mass  when  pressed  in  the  hand,  but  not  so  wet 
«.nat  it  will  not  readily  break  up  and  fall  into  a  powder. 

In  moistening  drugs  containing  a  large  proportion  of  soluble  matter  (ex- 
Tactive,  gum,  sugar,  etc.)  the  powder  agglutinates,  especially  if  very  fine, 
as  in  Cinchona  and  Rhubarb,  forming  small  balls  which  cannot  be  rubbecf 
to  powder  with  the  hands.  Such  moistened  powder  should  be  sifted  through 
a  coarse  sieve,  and  the  agglutinated  particles  rubbed  through  with  the  fia* 
nand. 

As  a  rule,  the  more  extractive  a  drug  contains,  and  the  more  aqueous 
the  menstruum,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  moisten. 

Conversely,  the  /ess  extractive  in  the  drug,  and  the  more  alcoholic 
aie  menstruum,  the  easier  it  is  to  moisten,  and  therefore  the  less  care 
is  required. 

This  is  also  true  of  packing  the  powder  in  the  percolator.  With  the  first- 
mentioned  class  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  powder  be  dropped  suc- 
v-tssively  in  small  quantities,  and  that  the  pressure  in  packing  be  not  so 
great  as  to  cause  formation  of  compact  layers  of  the  drug,  which  could  only 
be  penetrated  by  the  menstrua  with  great  difficulty,  if  at  all.  On  the  other 
nand,  with  the  latter  class,  containing  less  extractive  and  requiring  alcoholic 
menstrua,  such  as  Buchu,  Cubeb,  Ipecac,  etc.,  the  packing  may  be  done 
much  more  quickly  and  with  less  care,  since  these  powders  are  easily  pene- 
trated by  the  alcoholic  menstrua. 

In  packing  the  powdered  drug  the  following  procedure  should  be 
observed: 

First,  prepare  the  percolator  by  inserting  a  piece  of  absorbent  cotton  (cut 
across  the  fiber  to  expose  the  pores)  in  the  neck,  and  of  such  size  that  it 
covers  the  bottom  of  the  percolator.  Upon  this  a  piece  of  filter  paper,  cut 


PERCOLATION. 


round  and  "nicked,"  is  carefully  laid  so  as  to  extend  a  half-inch  up  the 
sides,  being  first  moistened  with  the  menstruum,  and  then  a  thin  layer  of 
fine  sand.  The  first  portion  of  powder  is  then  carefully  introduced  to  guard 
against  any  falling  between  the  filtering  media,  distributed  evenly,  and 
gently  pressed.  With  the  second  portion  the  pressure  is  somewhat  increased 
and  continued  with  each  successive  portion  until  all  the  powder  is  packed. 

For  packing,  a  cylindrical  piece  of  wood,  cut  square  at  the  end,  is  used. 
The  powder  is  now  covered  with  a  disk  of  paper  or  cloth,  upon  which  are 
placed  a  few  pieces  of  glass  or  similar  heavy  material  to  keep  it  in  place. 
The  menstruum  is  then  poured  in,  a  sufficient  quantity  constantly  being 
supplied  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  powder  covered  until  the  percolate  begins 
to  flow  at  the  end  of  the  tube,  when  the  percolator  should  be  carefully 
covered  and  set  aside,  if  maceration  is  directed  or  deemed  necessary. 

Maceration. — It  is  not  necessary  to  continue   maceration   more  than   24 
hours  with  drugs  containing    little    extractive,    but  with   more  extractive 
drugs,  also  such   as   contain   alka- 
loids,  extracted    with  difficulty,   i. 
e.,    Cinchona,    Hyoscyamus,    Nux 
Vorrica,  etc.,  the  maceration  may 
be  prolonged  for  three  or  four  days. 

With  this  latter  class  it  is  al- 
ways best  to  allow  the  powder  to 
macerate  for  an  hour  or  two  bc- 
fore\\.  is  packed  in  the  percolator, 
so  as  to  permit  it  to  "swell;" 
without  this  precaution,  the  drug 
is  liable  to  swell  when  confined 
in  the  percolator,  and  thereby 
impede  the  flow  of  the  men- 
struum. 

The  menstruum  (plural,  men- 
strua) or  the  liquid  used  for  ex- 
traction, is  usually  Alcohol,  or 

Alcohol  diluted   with  Water  in  PERCOLATION. 

various   proportions,    sometimes 

with  an  addition  of  Glycerin.  When  the  greater  proportion  is  water, 
the  menstruum  is  generally  said  to  be  aqueous;  when  Alcohol  is  the 
greater,  it  is  termed  an  alcoholic  menstruum. 

Chemical  solvents  are  sometimes  employed  for  the  more  effective  ex- 
traction of  drugs  whose  principles  are  soluble  with  difficulty  in  neutral 
menstrua. 

Alkaline  menstrua  are  employed  with  resinous  or  acid  drugs,  such  as 
Glycyrrhiza  and  Rhubarb,  and  acid  menstrua,  when  the  active  princip/e? 
consist  of  Alkaloids,  as  in  Cinchona,  Conium  and  Nux  Vomica. 


too  MENSTRUA. 

The  menstruum  should  be  selected  with  reference  to  its  solvent 
power  and  its  adaptability  to  hold  the  extracted  matter  permanently 
in  solution,  or  to  prevent  precipitation. 

The  character  and  solubility  of  the  constituents  of  the  drug  must  be 
known  to  insure  the  use  of  the  best  solvent. 

As  a  general  rule,  therefore,  alkaloidal,  resinous  and  oleo-resinous 
drugs  require  alcoholic  menstrua. 

Acid  and  extractive  drugs  require  aqitcoiis  menstrua.  There  are,  however, 
some  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  the  menstrua  directed  in  tue  U.  S.  Ph. 
should  be  used  in  all  official  preparations. 

In  some  drugs  the  constituents  vary  greatly  as  regards  solubility, 
since  they  contain  at  once  oils,  acids,  and  alkaloids,  all  possessing 
medicinal  value. 

In  such  cases  it  is  difficult  to  select  such  menstrua  as  will  extract  all 
these  constituents  without  their  subsequent  precipitation  in  the  per- 
colate. 

Glycerin  is  here  well  adapted  as  a  medium,  since  it  possesses  intermediate 
solvent  properties  between  alcohol  and  water,  as  it  dissolves  to  a  great 
extent  all  the  principles  soluble  in  either  alone.  The  use  of  glycerin  should 
be  confined  to  menstrua  having  only  the  above  purpose  in  view. 

The  displacement  of  the  menstrua  with  weak  alcohol  or  water  should  net 
be  attempted  until  the  greater  portion  of  the  extract  has  been  obtained.  I' 
is  best  to  begin  with  a  liquid  slightly  less  alcoholic  in  strength,  and  then 
gradually  increase  the  proportion  of  water  until  finished.  With  drugs  con- 
taining considerable  gum,  starch,  etc..,  liable  to  swell,  great  care  must  be 
taken,  that  water  be  not  used  too  early  in  the  process. 


Inorganic  Pharmacy. 

This  division  comprises  the  inorganic  substances,  their  Compounds 
and  Preparations. 

They  will  be  treated  with  reference  to  their  derivation  and  produc- 
tion, their  purification  and  preparation,  and  their  pharmaceutical  and 
medicinal  properties  and  uses. 

The  chemical  theories  and  principles  involved  are  not  particularly 
treated  here,  but  are  reserved  for  the  Lectures  on  Chemistry.  Never- 
theless, the  various  processes  employed  in  the  production  and  prepa- 
ration of  Chemical  substances,  the  reactions  involved  and  their  physi- 
cal and  chemical  characters  and  properties,  are  sufficiently  explained 
to  render  the  study  comparatively  easy.  It  is  assumed  that  every 
student  has  a  general  knowledge  of  chemistry,  however  slight,  and 
this  should  be  extended  by  reference  to  some  text-book  on  chemistry 
in  conjunction  with  the  study  of  these  Lectures. 

The  following  terms  are  used  quite  frequently  and  the  respective 
distinctions  should  be  carefully  observed: 

Elements,  which  include  the  Gases,  such  as  Hydrogen;  the  non-metals,  or 
metalloids,  such  as  Iodine,  Bromine;  the  metals,  such  as  Iron,  Copper, 
Lead;  the  alkali  metals,  Potassium,  Sodium,  and  the  alkaline  earths,  Cal- 
cium, Magnesium,  etc. 

A  Compottndis  the  product  of  two  or  more  of  these  elements,  which  may 
be  an  Acid,  a  Base  or  a  Salt. 

A  Preparation  is  the  particular  form  given  to  an  element  or  a  compound 
by  dissolving  it  or  mixing  it  with  a  substance  for  certain  uses.  It  differs 
from  a  compound  in  that  while  the  latter  is  the  product  of  different  ele- 
ments, possessing  new  and  distinctive  properties  from  the  elements  from 
which  it  was  made,  the  substances  that  enter  into  a  preparation  do  no';  lose 
their  chemical  properties,  but  are  simply  changed  in  form. 

Thus  Potassium  Iodide  is  a  compound  of  Iodine  (and  Potassium),  but 
Tincture  of  Iodine  is  a  preparation  of  Iodine;  Sulphuric  Acid  is  a  compound 
of  Sulphur,  but  Precipitated  Sulphur  is  a  preparation,  or  form  of  Sulphur. 

The  distinction  is  the  same  as  that  between  a  compound,  or  chemical, 
solution  and  a.  simple  solution.  7n  the  former  instance  a  chemical  change 
takes  place,  in  the  latter  a  physical  change  only. 

The  preparations,  being  regarded  more  especially  as  pharmacal  prod- 
ucts, are  mostly  treated  separately  in  a  succeeding  Lecture,  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  classes,  i.  e. ,  Waters,  Solutions,  Spirits. 
There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  under  each  element  and 


io6  WATER. 

compound   the   respective   preparations   are    always  enumerated  and 
often  completely  described. 

COMPOUNDS  OF  HYDROGEN  AND  OXYGEN. 

Water.-  H,O. — Aqua,  U.  S.,  natural  water  in  its  purest  attainable 
state. 

A  colorless,  limpid  liquid  without  odor  or  taste  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature and  remaining  odorless  while  being  heated  to  boiling. 

The  U.  S.  Ph.,  prescribes  that  water  should  contain  not  more  than  0.05% 
soluble  salts,  that  it  be  free  from  metallic  impurities  and  nitrites  and 
fixes  limits  for  the  presence  of  sulphates,  chlorides,  nitrates  and  organic  im- 
purities. 

Water  may  be  purified  by  filtration  through  Animal  Charcoal  and  Sand 
and  by  precipitation  with  Alum  (Alum,  et  Potass  Sulph.)  or  Ferric  Chloride. 

The  following  adjectives  are  used  to  designate  different  kinds  of  water. 
pura,  pure;  Jluz>ia/is,  r\ver\pluvialis,  ra\n\f on/ana,  fountain. 

From  water  the  following  are  prepared: 

Distilled  Water. — Aqua  Destillata,  U.  S. — From  1,000  volumes  of 
water  the  first  100  volumes  are  rejected  and  of  the  remainder  Soo 
volumes  are  collected  by  distillation. 

It  should  be  preserved  in  loosely-stoppered  containers. 

Medicated  Waters,  Aqua  Medicata. — The  official  class  of  waters; 
also: 

Hydrogen  Dioxide  Solution. — Aqua  Hydrogenii  Dioxidii,  U.  S. — 
Solution  of  Hydrogen  peroxide.  A  slightly  acid,  aqueous  solution  of 
Hydrogen  Dioxide,  H.,O2,  containing  about  3  per  cent  of  pure  Dioxide 
corresponding  to  about  10  volumes  of  available  oxygen. 

Peroxide  of  Hydrogen  is  made  by  decomposing  Barium  Dioxide  with 
Phosphoric  Acid,  freeing  the  solution  from  Barium  Phosphate  by  precipi- 
tating it  as  insoluble  Barium  Sulphate  with  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Properties  and  Uses. — As  a  ready  source  of  oxygen  for  bleaching  and  anti- 
septic purposes.  It  should  be  kept  in  loosely-stoppered  bottles  in  a  coo' 
place  to  prevent  the  disengagement  of  the  oxygen  which  may  otherwise 
result  in  explosion. 


The   Inorganic  Acids. 

Acids,  whether  organic  or  inorganic,  except  in  the  case  of  the  so- 
called  haloid  acids,  like  Hydro-chloric  Acid,  arc  built  on  the  type  of 
the  water  molecule,  and  consist  of  a  negative  Atom  or  a  group 
united  by  Oxygen  to  Hydrogen.  If  we  represent  the  water-molecule 
thus:  II — O— H.  an  acid  molecule  would  be  represented  thus: 
X — () — II,  X  representing  the  negative  atom  or  group  of  atoms. 

Character  an./  Properties. — Acids  are  characterized  by  possessing  a 
sour  taste,  by  the  property  of  changing  certain  vegetable  blues,  like 
blue  litmus,  to  rcii  and  by  the  power  they  have  of  combining  with 
bases  to  produce  salts. 

Some  acids  are  //w/w-basic,  that  is,  are  built  on  the  plan  of  one 
water-molecule,  and  have  one  replaceable  hydrogen  atom,  as  Nitric 
Acid,  H — O — (NO.,);  others  are  f//- basic  and  have  two  replaceable 

hydrogen  atoms  as  Sulphuric  Acid   T        , ,^>  fSO.,);    and  some  other 

I  1 \  ) 

acids  have  a  still  higher  basicity. 

In  the  inorganic,  acids  the  number  of  Hydrogen  atoms  in  the  for- 
mula indicates  the  basicity  of  the  acid,  but  this  is  not  always  true  of 
the  organic  acids,  since  one  or  more  hydrogen  atoms  may  enter  into 
the  constitution  of  the  complex  negative  radical.  Inorganic  acids,  or. 
as  they  are  also  called,  ''Mineral  Acids,"  with  but  one  Hydrogen  atom 
can  form  but  one  series  of  Salts  by  combining  with  liases,  but  those 
that  have  two  or  more  Hydrogen  atoms  may  form  t~n<o  or  more  >eries, 
according  as  all  or  only  a  part  of  the  Hydrogen  atoms  are  replac  ed  by 
the  basic  Radical. 

For  example,  Sulphuric  Acid,  H.^SO,,  may  react  upon  Soda  and  produce, 
under  different  circumstances,  two  different  salts.  In  case  both  its  Hydro- 
gen atoms  are  replaced  by  Sodium,  neutral  Sodium  Sulphate  N'a-SC),,  will 
be  produced,  but  if  only  one  of  the  Hydrogen  atoms  is  replaced  by  the 
Sodium,  Acid  Sodium  Sulphate  HXaSO,  will  be  produced.  The  latter  salt 
still  possesses  acid  properties. 

The  Haloid  Acids  differ  frorti  the  other  in  molecular  plan  by  having  the 
negative  Radical  directly  united  to  Hydrogen  without  the  mediation  of  an 
Oxygen  atom,  as  Hydrochloric  Acid,  HC1,  Hydrobromic  Acid.  Illir,  and 
Hydriodic  Acid,  III.  These  Acids  form  a  corresponding  scries  of  Salts  by 
uiriting  with  Hases.  Common  salt,  NaCl,  is  an  illustration. 

Some  of  the  acids  are  solid,  some  liquid,  and  some  gaseous  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures. 


io8  THE  ACIDS. 

Solid  Acids. — Arsenous,  Boric,  Chromic.  Arsenous  and  Chromic 
Acids  arc  not  true  acids;  these  will  be  considered  with  their  respective 
elements.  There  are  eight  official  Organic  Acids  that  are  solid  and 
three  that  are  liquid. 

Liquid  Acids. — Nitric,  Nitrohydrochloric,  Phosphoric,  Hypophos- 
phorous,  and  Sulphuric. 

Gaseous  Acids. — Hydrobromic,  Hydrochloric  (Hydriodic  and 
Hydrofluoric  not  official),  Sulphurous  and  Carbonic  Acid  and  Hydro- 
cyanic Acid  which  may  be  here  included. 

GENERAL    PROPERTIES    AND    USES. 

The  chief  inorganic  acids  occur  commercially  in  three  different 
forms,  designated  with  reference  to  their  strength  and  purity,  viz: 

"Com.,"  Commercial,  for  industrial  uses. 

"U.  S.  P.,"  Responding  to  the  tests  for  purity  and  strength  of  the 
U.  S.  Ph.,  for  medicinal  and  pharmacal  purposes  and 

"C.  P.,"  Chemically  pure,  when  a  degree  of  purity  higher  than  the 
U.  S.  Ph.  degree  is  required  for  analytical  tests  and  reactions. 

The  strengths  of  liquid  acids  are  designated  by  the  percentage  by 
weight  of  real,  or  anhydrous  acid,  determined  by  the  specific  gravity 
and  by  the  number  of  C.C.  of  the  V.  S.  (volumetric  solution)  of 
Potassium  Hydrate  required  to  exactly  neutralize  a  given  number  of 
C.C.  of  the  acid.  (Refer  to  U.  S.  Ph.,  Volumetric  Solutions,  p.  482.) 

Preservation  and  Handling. — Especial  care  should  be  used  in  storing  acids 
in  a  cool  place,  as  they  expand  by  heat,  some  volatilize  and  some  are  liable 
to  freeze  and  expand  through  extreme  cold  (as  Sulphuric  Acid)  and  burst 
the  container.  They  should  always  be  kept  in  glass-stoppered  containers 
and  care  must  be  observed  in  loosening  the  stopper  should  it  become 
tightly  fixed  in  the  bottle. 

Pharmacal  Uses. — As  chemical  solvents  and  precipitants;  for  the  extempo- 
raneous preparation  of  their  respective  compounds;  for  corroding,  etching 
and  many  other  purposes  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

Medicinal  Uses  and  Antidotes. — To  counteract  alkalinity  in  the  system;  to 
increase  the  action  of  alkaloids  and  to  furnish  refrigerant  draughts,  for 
which  organic  acids  are,  however,  mostly  used.  The  corrosive  action  of 
concentrated  acids  taken  internally  is  counteracted  by  the  administration 
of  carbonates  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  oil,  soap  and  demulcent  liquids. 


The  Haloid   Acids. 

These  include  the  acids  of  Bromine,  Chlorine,  Fluorine  and  Iodine. 

Hydrobromic  Acid.  —  Acidum  Hydrobromicum.  —  A  haloid  acid 
having  the  formula  HBr. 

Preparation.  —  It  is  made  by  causing  Water  to  react  on  Phosphorus 
Bromide  as  expressed  in  the  following  equation: 


The  hydrobromic  acid  is  separated  from  the  phosphoric  acid  by  dis- 
tillation. 

Also  made  by  decomposition  of  Potassium  Bromide  with  Sulphuric 
Acid,  the  Potassium  Sulphate  allowed  to  crystallize  and  the  acid  sepa- 
rated by  distillation: 

2KBr     -}-     H2SO4     =     K2SO4     +     2HBr. 
Pot.  brom.    Acidsulph.   Pot.  sulph.          Acid. 

Properties.  —  A  colorless  gas,  with  a  strong,  irritating  smell,  and  an  acid 
taste  and  reaction.  It  liquifies  only  at  the  low  temperature  of  —  73°C.  and 
becomes  a  colorless  solid  at  —  87°C.  It  fumes  on  exposure  to  the  air,  as 
also  does  its  aqueous  solution.  Like  hydrochloric  acid,  it  has  a  strong 
affinity  for  water,  and  dissolves  in  it  in  very  large  proportion.  It  is  the 
aqueous  solution  which  is  used  in  medicine,  and  to  which  the  name,  hydro- 
bromic acid,  is  usually  applied.  The  aqueous  solution  that  contains  49.8 
per  cent  of  the  acid  gas  has  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.515. 

Diluted  Hydrobromic  Acid  —  Acidum  Hydrobromicum  Dilutum, 
U.  S.  —  A  liquid  composed  of  10  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute 
Hydrobromic  Acid  and  90  per  cent  water.  Sp.  gr.  1.077. 

It  is  readily  distinguished  from  hydrochloric  acid  by  the  addition  of 
chlorine  water,  which  sets  free  the  bromine.  It  should  be  preserved  in 
glass-stoppered  bottles. 

Medicinal  Uses.  —  Chiefly  administered  in  place  of  Bromides  in  doses  from 
i  to  4C.C. 

Hydrochloric  Acid  —  HC1.  —  Acidum  Hydrochloricum,  U.  S.  —  A 
liquid  composed  of  31.9  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute  Hydrochloric 
Acid  and  68.1  per  cent  of  water.  Sp.  gr.  1.16. 

This  is  also  a  haloid  acid,  and,  like  hydrobromic  acid,  absolute 
hydrochloric  acid  is  gaseous  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  it  is  the 
aqueous  solution  that  is  used  in  the  arts,  and  to  which  the  name 
Hydrochloric,  or  "Muriatic,"  Acid  is  applied. 

Source  .  —  The  pure  acid  gas  is  obtained  by  treating  pure  Common 

109 


no  HYDROCHLORIC   ACID. 

Salt  with  pure  Sulphuric  Acid,  according  to  the  following  equation: 

NaCl        -f         H,SO4      —       HNaSO4        +         HC1. 
Sodium  chloride.        Sulphuric  acid.        Sodium  sulphate  Hydrochloric 

(acid).  acid. 

and  collecting  the  gas  over  mercury  or  by  the  displacement  of  air. 
The  aqueous  hydrochloric  acid  is  obtained  by  passing  the  gas  into 
water,  the  latter  liquid  absorbing  it  in  large  quantities. 

C>iijnicl,-r  inn/  J'rsferlics. — The  gaseous  hydrochloric  acid  is  intensely 
irritating  to  the  air  passages,  and  strongly  acid  in  its  chemical  reaction.  It 
is  condensable  to  a  liquid  at  a  temperature  — 4°C.  and  a  pressure  of  25  at- 
mospheres. Its  sp.  gr.,  taking  air  as  the  standard,  is  1.278. 

The  official  Hydrochloric  Acid  is  a  colorless,  fuming  liquid,  intensely 
acid  to  the  taste  and  in  its  chemical  behavior,  and  possesses  a  pungent  suf- 
focating odor.  Heated  with  Manganese  Dioxide  it  evolves  Chlorine,  and 
in  a  solution  of  Silver  Nitrate  it  produces  a  curdy  white  precipitate,  which 
on  exposure  to  light  soon  turns  purple. 

f  ~>v.>.  —  In  the  preparation  of  various  official  Chlorides;  with  nitric  acid  to 
form  Xitro-IIydrochloric  Acid;  for  generating  Chlorine;  and  in  promoting 
the  precipitation  of  Resins.  It  is  sometimes  administered  internally,  and  is 
sometimes  used  externally  for  its  irritant  or  caustic  effects. 

Also  in  the  preparation  of  Solutions  of:  Arsenous  Acid,  Iron  Chloride 
and  Zinc  Chloride. 

Diluted  Hydrochloric  Acid. — Acidum  Hydrochloricum  Dilutum, 
U.  S.,  contains  10  per  cent  of  absolute  Hydrochloric  Acid.  Sp.  gr. 
1.050. 

It  is  made  by  mixing  100  Gm.  official  acid  with  ^19  Gin.  of  Dis- 
tilled Water. 

Hydrofluoric  Acid — HF. — Acidum  Hydrofluoricum.  A  haloid 
acid.  Not  official. 

Obtained  by  distilling  powdered  l-'luor-spar  with  Sulphuric  Acid  in 
a  leaden  retort,  and  condensing  the  vapors  in  water.  Great  care 
should  be  observed  in  the  process  not  to  breathe  the  vapors,  as  they 
are  highly  irritant  and  poisonous. 

/'/-I'/,-;-//,-.*-. —  Hydrofluoric  Acid  is  a  colorless,  mobile,  fuming  liquid, 
lighter  than  water,  and  highly  volatile.  It  boils  at  i9.4°C.,  and  is  very 
soluble  in  water.  A  solution  whose  sp.  gr.  is  1.15  contains  35.37  per  cent 
of  hydrofluoric  acid  and  is  the  kind  usually  employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  an 
extremely  caustic  liquid,  and  must  be  preserved  in  bottles  made  of  gutta- 
percha  or  lead.  Its  principal  use  is  for  etching  on  glass. 

Il\'driodicAcid.—  \\\. —  Acidum  Hydriodicum.  A  haloid  acid. 
Xot  official. 

Made  by  decomposing  Iodine  in  solution  with  Hydrogen  Sulphide, 
or  by  double  decomposition  between  an  Iodide  and  an  Acid. 


The  Oxygen  Acids. 

The  elements  Nitrogen,  Phosphorus  and  Sulphur  form  acids  by 
uniting  with  both  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  and  these  are  therefore 
called  oxyacit/s  in  distinction  to  the  hydracids,  which  the  haloid 
acids  sometimes  are  termed.  They  comprise  Nitric,  Phosphoric, 
Hypophosphorous,  Sulphuric  and  Sulphurous  Acids.  Also  the  acids  of 
Arsenic,  Boron  and  Chromium,  treated  under  their  respective  elements. 

Nitric  Acid. — IINO3. — Acidum  Nitricum,  U.  S.  A  liquid  com- 
posed of  68  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute  Nitric  Acid  and  32  per 
cent  of  water.  Sp.  gr.  1.41. 

It  is  usually  obtained  by  reacting  on  Sodium  or  Potassium  Nitrate 
with  Sulphuric  Acid.  The  reaction  is  represented  by  the  following 
equation: 

K\0:)      +       II2SO4  KHSO4        •+-  HNO3. 

Potassium  nitrate.     Sulphuric  acid.     Potassium  sulphate     Nitric  acid. 

(acid) 

The  process  is  conducted  in  iron  or  glass-retorts  and  the  acid  is 
obtained  by  distillation. 

Properties. — The  pure  acid  is  a  strongly  fuming,  very  caustic  and  corrosive 
liquid,  of  a  pungent,  suffocating  odor,  and  strongly  acid  reaction.  It  rapidly 
absorbs  moisture  from  the  air,  and  on  account  of  this  and  its  corrosive 
properties  must  be  kept  in  tight-fitting  glass-stoppered  bottles.  It  acts 
powerfully  on  organic  tissues,  and  colors  such  substances  as  horn,  hair, 
skin,  nails,  wool  and  silk  a  bright  yellow  color.  It  acts  energetically  on 
copper,  evolving  in  the  process  red  fumes  of  nitrogen  tetroxide,  and  yield- 
ing a  green  solution  of  copper  nitrate. 

Uses. — For  dissolving  various  metals;  as  an  oxidizing  agent;  for  preparing 
certain  nitrates;  in  the  preparation  of  Nitrous  Ether  and  Amyl  Nitrite  and 
in  medicine  to  some  extent  as  a  caustic. 

Diluted  Nitric  Acid. — Acidum  Nitricum  Dilutum,  U.  S.,  contains 
10  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute  Nitric  Acid.  Sp.  gr.  1.057. 

It  is  made  by  mixing  100  Gm.  Nitric  Acid  with  580  Gm.  Distilled 
Water. 

Nitrohydrochloric  Acid. — Acidum  Nitrohydrochloricum,  U.  S.  A 
mixture  of  iS  volumes  of  Nitric  Acid  and  82  volumes  of  Hydrochloric 
Acid;  called  Aqua  Regia,  because  of  its  power  to  dissolve  gold. 

The  acids,  when  mixed,  should  be  kept  in  glas^-stoppered  bottles,  not 
more  than  half-filled.  The  liquid  assumes  a  golden  color  and  gives  off 
chlorine  gas  to  which  its  power  of  dissolving  gold  is  due. 

It  is  also  called  Nitromuriatic  Acid. 


iia  NITRIC  AND 

Diluted  Nitrohydrochloric  Acid. — Acidum  Nitrohydrochloricttm 
Dilutum,  U.  S.,  is  a  mixture  of  4  volumes  of  Nitric  Acid,  18  volumes 
of  Hydrochloric  Acid,  and  Distilled  Water  78  volumes. 

The  water  is  added  to  the  acids  after  the  reaction  has  ceased. 
It  is  frequently  given   internally   in   conjunction   with  bitter  tonic  medi- 
cines. 

ACIDS  OF  PHOSPHORUS. 
There  are  five  different  acids  of  phosphorus: 
Hypophosphorotis  acid,  HPH3O2. 
Phosphorous  acid,  H3PO3. 
Orthophosphoric  acid,  HSPO4. 
Pyrophosphoric  acid,  H4P2O7,  and 
Metaphosphoric  acid,  HPO3. 

Those  of  most  importance  to  the  pharmacist  are  Metaphosphoric: 
Acid,  or  the  co-called  "Glacial"  Phosphoric  Acid,  and  the  official 
Orthophosphoric  Acid. 

Metaphosphoric    Acid.—  HPOS  —  Glacial   Phosphoric    Acid.     This 
may  be  obtained  from  ordinary  or  Orthophosphoric  acid  by  heating  it 
until  water  is  no  longer  given  off,  according  to  the  equation: 
H3PO4=HPO8  +  H2O. 

In  practice,  it  is  usually  obtained  by  treating  calcined  bones  (Calcium 
Phosphate)  with  dilute  Sulphuric  Acid,  neutralizing  the  filtered  liquid  with 
ammonia  and  evaporating  the  liquid  freed  from  the  precipitate  to  dryness 
and  heating  to  redness.  The  fused  acid  is  poured  upon  polishes  iron-plates 
and  obtained  in  flat  pieces  or  molded  into  pencils.  The  acid  thus  prepared, 
though  containing  some  sodium,  is  sufficiently  pure  for  some  of  the  purposes 
of  pharmacy. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — Orthophosphoric  Acid — Hal^ — Acidum  Phos- 
phoricum,  U.  S.,  a  liquid  composed  of  not  less  than  85  per  cent  by 
weight  of  absolute  Orthophosphoric  Acid  and  15  per  cent  of  water. 
Sp.  gr.  1.71. 

It  is  prepared  from  Phosphorus  and  Nitric  Acid  in  the  presence  of 
Water;  by  the  aid  of  heat  the  Phosphorus  is  oxidized  by  the  Nitric- 
Acid,  the  excess  of  Nitric  Acid  driven  off  and  the  liquid  concentrated 
by  evaporation. 

Pn'pt-rties. — The  official  acid  is  a  colorless,  odorless  liquid,  with  a  strongly 
acid  taste  and  reaction.  When  heated  gradually  it  loses  water  until,  when 
a  temperature  of  about  2oo°C.  is  reached,  decomposition  occurs  and  it  is 
converted  first  into  a  mixture  of  pyrophosphoric  and  metaphosphoric  acids, 
and  finally  into  metaphosphoric  acid. 

Tests. — Metaphosphoric  and  Orthophosphoric  acids  are  readily  distin- 
guished from  each  other  when  in  solution,  by  the  following  tests:  Mt'ta- 


PHOSPHORIC   ACIDS.  113 

phosphoric  acid  yields  with  nitrate  of  silver  a  transparent  gelatinous  precipi- 
tate, with  barium  and  calcium  chlorides  white  precipitates,  and  it  has  the 
property  of  coagulating  albumen.  Orthophosphoric  acid,  if  ammonia  be 
added,  yields  with  nitrate  of  silver  a  yellow  precipitate,  does  not  form  pre- 
cipitates with  either  calcium  or  barium  chlorides,  and  does  not  coagulate 
albumen. 

Diluted  Phosphoric  Acid. — Acidum  Phosphoricum  Dilutum,  U.  S., 
contains  10  per  cent  of  Orthophosphoric  Acid  and  has  a  sp.  gr.  of 

1.057. 

It  is  made  by  mixing  100  Gin.  official  acid  with  750  Gm.  Distilled 
Water. 

Uses. — In  Syrup  of  the  Phosphates  of  Iron,  Quinine  and  Strychnine  and 
several  unofficial  preparations,  such  as  Compound  Solution  of  Phosphates, 
etc. 

In  weak  solutions  containing  an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  a  fungoid 
growth  is  formed  which  cannot  be  prevented  except  by  the  addition  of  a  lit- 
tle hydrochloric  acid;  it  may  be  retarded,  however,  by  keeping  such  prepa- 
rations in  small,  well-filled  bottles,  in  a  dark  place. 

Diluted  HypophosphoroHs  Acid.  —  HPILO.,. — Acidum  Hypophos- 
phorosum  Dilutum,  U.  S. — A  liquid  composed  of  about  10  per  cent 
by  weight  of  absolute  Acid  and  90  per  cent  water.  Sp.  gr.  1.046. 

The  acid  is  formed,  combined  as  hypophosphite,  when  Phosphorus 
is  boiled  with  Calcium,  or  other  Alkaline  Hydrates,  in  water.  The 
pure  acid  is  obtained  by  decomposing  the  hypophosphite  with  a  stronger 
acid. 

The  process  of  the  National  Formulary  consists  of  mixing  a  solution  of 
Potassium  Hypophosphite  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  Tartaric  Acid. 
Potassium  Tartrate,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  precipitates,  the  Hypophosphor- 
ous  Acid  is  set  free  and  may  be  obtained  in  solution  of  the  desired  strength 
by  evaporating  the  alcohol  and  diluting  the  liquid  with  distilled  water  to 
the  required  measure.  A  concentrated  solution,  50  per  cent,  may  be  ob- 
tained by  careful  evaporation. 

Uses. — As  a  substitute  for  Hypophosphites  in  doses  from  0.5  to  4  C.C.  in 
syrup. 


The  Acids  of  Sulphur. 

Sulphuric  A  en/.  —  HaSO4 — Acidum  Sulphuricum,  U.  S.  A  liquid 
composed  of  not  less  than  92.5  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute  Sul- 
phuric Acid  and  not  more  than  7.5  per  cent  of  water.  Sp.  gr.  1.835. 

This  is  the  most  important  and  useful  of  all  acids;  it  is  used  in 
almost  innumerable  processes  in  the  chemical  arts;  by  means  of  it  the 
great  majority  of  the  other  acids  are  prepared;  and  its  manufacture 
constitutes  a  very  important  branch  of  modern  industry.  The  com- 
pounds of  sulphuric  acid  or  Sulphates,  are  very  numerous  and  impor- 
tant, some  of  them  existing  in  nature  and  others  being  products  of  the 
laboratory. 

Sources. — The  acid  may  be  obtained  by  the  "roasting"  of  sulphides, 
such  as  iron  pyrites,  or  by  burning  Sulphur  in  a  leaden  chamber  so 
arranged  that  the  fumes  of  Sulphur,  Sulphur  Dioxide,  SO.,,  come  in 
contact  with  water,  HaO,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  and  Nitric  Acid, 
HX03: 

2HNO.J  +  2SO.  +  H,O=2H2SO4+  NaO3. 

The  nitrogen  trioxide,  N^O3,  combines  with  Water  and  Oxygen 
and  Sulphur  Dioxide  to  form  Sulphuric  Acid  with  the  liberation  of 
the  trioxide.  This  Nitrogen  Trioxide  arts  as  a  continuous  carrier  of 
Oxygen  from  the  Air  to  the  Dioxide,  being  re-formed  as  soon  as  the 
Sulphuric  Acid  is  produced. 

The  nitrogen  trioxide  is  generated  by  the  action  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on 
crude  Sodium  Nitrate,  and  it  is  evident  that  a  small  quantity  of  it  will  suf- 
fice for  the  production  of  a  large  quantity  of  Sulphuric  Acid.  The  acid 
produced  by  this  process  is  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  bottom  of  the 
leaden  chamber  until  it  acquires  a  specific  gravity  of  1.55  and  contains 
about  64  per  cent  of  pure  acid.  This  liquid,  further  concentrated  in  leaden 
evaporating  pans  until  it  acquires  a  specific  gravity  of  1.71  and  contains  78 
per  cent  of  real  acid,  constitutes  the  common  brown  "Oil  of  Vitriol"  of  com- 
merce. 

Further  concentration  of  the  acid  is  effected  by  evaporation  in  platinum 
vessels. 

Purification. — The  product  thus  obtained  not  only  contains  considerable 
water  but  also  frequently  Arsenic  derived  from  the  sulphur  ores  used  in 
generating  the  SO2,  and  Lead  Sulphate  derived  from  the  leaden  chamber 
and  evaporating  pans  of  the  same  material. 

To  get  rid  of  these  impurities  the  commercial  product  is  distilled  in  glass 
retorts  until  about  one-third  is  passed  over.  The  receiver  is  now  changed 


SULPHURIC  ACID.  115 

and  the  remainder  distilled  nearly  to  dryness.  The  product  thus  obtained 
is  free  from  the  other  impurities,  but  still  contains  some  water  which  cannot 
be  got  rid  of  by  distillation. 

Properties. — The  pure  acid  thus  obtained  is  an  inodorous,  colorless, 
and  oily-looking  liquid  of  strong  acid  reaction,  and  is  intensely  cor- 
rosive and  caustic.  It  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water  and 
alcohol,  and  the  mixture  develops '  considerable  heat;  for  this  reason 
the  acid  should  be  poured  into  the  water  instead  of  the  reverse  when 
these  are  mixed.  As  it  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  it  chars  or 
blackens  many  organic  substances,  as  sugar,  by  abstracting  from  them 
the  elements  of  water,  especially  when  heated  with  them.  It  reacts  so 
violently  with  volatile  oils,  such  as  Oil  of  Turpentine,  as  to  sometimes 
cause  explosion. 

The  impurities  of  the  acid  and  their  detection  are  fully  described  in 
the  U.  S.  Ph. 

Aromatic  Sulphuric  Acid. — Acidum  Sulphuricum  Aromaticum, 
U.  S.,  consists  of  Sulphuric  Acid,  too  parts;  Tinct.  of  Ginger,  50  parts; 
Oil  of  Cinnamon,  i  part,  and  Alcohol  enough  to  make  1000  parts  by 
volume,  (C.C.). 

The  directions  given  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  to  add  the  sulphuric  acid  -gradually  to 
700  parts  of  alcohol  should  be  followed  explicitly,  for  if  the  alcohol  be 
added  to  the  sulphuric  acid,  or  if  the  sulphuric  acid  be  added  rapidly  to  the 
alcohol,  accidents  are  liable  to  occur  from  the  great  heat  developed.  This 
preparation  has  a  sp.  gr.  of  about  0.939  and  contains  about  20  per  cent  of 
absolute  acid. 

Diluted  Sulphuric  Acid. — Acidum  Sulphuricum  Dilutum,  U.  S., 
contains  10  per  cent  by  weight  of  Sulphuric  Acid.  Sp.  gr.  1.07.  It 
is  made  by  mixing  100  Gm.  of  the  official  acid  with  825  Gm.  Dis- 
tilled Water. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  alkaloids,  ether,  pyroxylin,  parchment,  etc. 
Also  in  the  manufacture  of  acids,  such  as  acetic,  nitric,  citric  and  tartaric; 
having  a  strong  affinity  for  bases,  it  unites  with  them  when  added  to  their 
salts  and  sets  the  weaker  acid  free — as  for  example,  carbonic  acid  from  car- 
bonate of  lime  or  soda  in  the  making  of  "soda  water."  Also  for  decom- 
posing certain  organic  compounds,  as  in  purification  of  chloroform;  and  for 
forming  sulphates. 

Fuming  Sulphuric  Acid,  or  "Xordhausen  Acid,"  for  some  purposes 
in  the  arts  is  preferred  to  the  ordinary  acid:  a  thick,  oily,  fuming 
liquid  of  a  sp.  gr.  from  I.S6  to  I.SQ.  It  consists  of  a  mi\!:;iv  or 
perhaps  a  combination  of  the  ordinary  sulphuric  acid.  1I^S()4  uit'h 
sulphuric  anhydride,  SO.,,  and  is  obtained  by  distilling  in  earthen- 
ware retorts  basic  Ferric  Sulphate.  Fe^S/),,.  the  product  uJ  roa>uiig 
common  Green  Vitriol,  FeSOA-- jH/X 


u6  SULPHUROUS   ACID. 

Sulphuric  Anhydride,  SO,,  is  a  substance  obtained  by  passing  Sul- 
phurous Anhydride,  SO,,  mixed  with  Oxygen  over  platinum  sponge 
or  platinized  asbestos  heated  to  redness.  It  may  also  be  obtained  by 
distillation  of  Nordhausen  Acid. 

It  exists  in  two  modifications.  One  consists  of  transparent  prisms  which 
melt  at  i6°C.,  and  on  agitation  solidifies  at  the  same  temperature.  If  the 
melted  prismatic  crystals  be  permitted  to  stand  at  a  temperature  a  little 
below  25°C.,  a  mass  of  silky  needles  will  be  formed  which  do  not  melt  at  a 
temperature  below  5OCC.  They  change  back  to  the  first  modification,  how- 
ever, when  melted.  In  the  second  form  SO3  does  not  redden  litmus  paper 
(unless  the  latter  be  damp);  it  may  be  handled  with  impunity  with  dry 
hands,  and  does  not  attack  the  metals  unless  moisture  be  present.  If 
thrown  into  water  it  hisses  like  a  hot  iron,  great  heat  is  developed  and 
H2SO4  is  formed.  For  convenience  and  transportation  and  on  account  of 
its  purity,  it  has  been  proposed  to  manufacture  it  on  a  large  scale  for  most 
purposes  for  which  pure  sulphuric  acid  is  required. 

Sulphurous  Acid. — H^SO3. — Acidum  Sulphurosum,  U.  S.  A  liquid 
composed  of  not  less  than  6.4  per  cent  by  weight  of  Sulphurous  Acid 
Gas  (Sulphur  Dioxide,  SO3)  and  93.6  per  cent  of  Water.  Sp.  gr. 

i-°35- 

It  may  be  formed  in  various  ways: 

(1)  When  Sulphur  Dioxide,  SO2,  is  brought  into  contact  with  Water. 

(2)  When  Sulphur  is  burned  in  the  air:  S-f  O2=SO2. 

(3)  Certain    Metals,    as    copper,    acted    upon    by  Sulphuric    Acid:     Cu-f- 
2H2SO4=CuSO4-f-2H2O-fSO2. 

(4)  Sulphur  and  Sulphuric  Acid  heated  together:  S-f  2H2SO4=3SO2+2H2O. 

(5)  By  the  decomposition    of  a   Sulphite    by    Sulphuric  Acid:     Xa2SO3-f- 
H2SO4=Na2SO4-f  H  2O+  SO2. 

(6)  By    heating    Charcoal    and    Sulphuric  Acid    together:       C-(-2H2SO4= 
2H2O+CO2+2SO2. 

It  is  the  latter  process  which  is  adopted  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  The  gas 
thus  obtained  is  passed  through  a  wash  bottle  and  collected  in  a 
bottle  containing  distilled  water,  in  which  it  is  dissolved. 

Properties. — The  official  acid  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  a  pungent,  stifling 
odor,  strongly  acid  taste  and  reaction,  and  first  strongly  reddens  and  then 
bleaches  litmus  paper. 

Uses. — In  the  manufacture  of  sulphites  and  as  a  bleaching  agent  in  the 
Arts;  in  medicine  chiefly  for  its  powerful  antiseptic  and  disinfecting  proper- 
ties. 


The  Non-Metals. 

The  non-metals  comprise  those  elements  which  lack  the  specific 
physical  characters  or  properties  of  the  metals,  such  as  expansibility, 
elasticity,  tenacity,  malleability  and  ductility. 

They  are  gaseous,  as  Hydrogen,  Chlorine;  liquid,  as  Bromine,  and 
solids,  which  may  be  hard  and  brittle,  such  as  Carbon  and  Sulphur,  or 
porous  and  divisible,  such  as  Phosphorus. 

Only  the  elements  themselves  and  their  preparations  will  be  here 
described,  their  acids  having  already  been  treated,  and  their  other 
compounds,  being,  as  a  rule,  described  under  their  respective  bases; 
for  example:  Sodium  Chloride  under  Sodium;  Potassium  Bromide 
under  Potassium;  Mercuric  Iodide  under  Mercury,  etc. 

The  non-metals,  or  metalloids,  as  they  are  also  preferably  called 
(from  oid,  Or.,  like),  are  usually  divided  into  four  groups  according  to 
their  property  of  combining  with  one,  two,  three  or  four  atoms  of 
Hydrogen  to  form  a  volatile  compound,  as  follows: 

1.  Hydrogen,  Chlorine,  Bromine,  Iodine  and  Fluorine. 

2.  Oxygen,  Sulphur,  Selenium  and  Tellurium. 

3.  Nitrogen,  Phosphorus  and  Arsenic. 

4.  Boron,  Carbon  and  Silicon. 

Of  these  the  compounds  of  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen  have  already  been 
described,  and  the  compound  of  Nitrogen  with  Hydrogen,  known  as  the 
radical,  NH3,  Ammonia,  may,  because  of  its  character,  be  considered  with 
the  alkalies. 

Of  the  elements  Selenium  and  Tellurium  there  are  no  compounds  of 
importance. 

CHLORINE.— Cl. 

The  element  Chlorine  is  a  gas  which  does  not  occur  in  a  free  state 
in  nature,  but  its  compounds  are  numerous  and  important. 

It  is  readily  obtained  by  the  reaction  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  on  Man- 
ganese Dioxide,  as  represented  in  the  following  equation: 

4HC1    -f     MnO,  -  :    C12     -f     MnCl,  +   2H2O 

Hydrochloric         Manganese        Chlorine          Manganese          Water, 
acid.  dioxide.  chloride. 

It  can  also  be  obtained  in  many  other  ways. 

Properties. — Chlorine  is  a  greenish  colored,  disagreeable  odorous  gas,  2. .15 
times  as  heavy  as  air,  and  under  a  pressure  of  6  atmospheres  at  orC.  con- 
vertible into  a  yellow  liquid  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.33.  The  gas  dissolves  i* 


Ii8  CHLORINE  AND 

about  half  its  volume  of  cold  water,  unites  with  great  energy  with  hydrogen 
to  form  Hydrochloric  Acid,  and  owing  to  its  strong  affinity  for  hydrogen  is  a 
powerful  Mi-aching  agent. 

PREPARATIONS. 

Chlorine  Water. — Aqua  Chlori,  U.  S.—  Is  a  solution  of  Chlorine 
Gas  in  Distilled  Water,  and  should  contain  not  less  than  0.4  per  cent 
of  the  gas.  (For  preparation  see  U.  S.  Ph.). 

Uses. — As  reagent  in  the  pharmaceutical  laboratory,  and  in  medicine  for 
its  antiseptic  virtues. 

Chlorinated  Lime. — Calx  Chlorata,  U.  S. — Also  wrongly  called 
"chloride  of  lime,"  is  a  compound  produced  by  the  action  of  Chlorine 
on  Calcium  Hydrate  and  containing  not  less  than  35  per  cent  of 
available  Chlorine. 

It  has  the  odor  of  chlorine,  and  is  a  valuable  bleaching  agent,  disinfect- 
ant and  antiseptic.  As  is  well  known,  it  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  air. 

Solution  of  Chlorinated  Soda. — Liquor  Soda;  Chloratse,  U.  S. — 
(Labarraque's  Solution)  an  aqueous  solution  of  several  chlorine- 
compounds  of  Sodium  containing  at  least  2.6  per  cent  by  weight  of 
available  chlorine. 

Prepared  by  adding  a  solution  of  150  Gin.  Sodium  Carbonate  to 
the  liquid  obtained  by  nitration  from  a  mixture  of  75  Gm.  Chlori- 
nated Lime  and  Water  to  make  1000  C.C. 

Properties. — Clear,  pale-greenish  liquid,  sp.  gr.  1.052,  odor  of  chlorine, 
disagreeable  alkaline  taste,  and  acting  as  a  bleaching  agent  upon  vegetable 
coloring  matters. 

Uses. — As  a  reagent  in  the  pharmaceutical  laboratory,  and  in  medicine  as 
a  disinfectant  and  antiseptic,  and  as  a  bleaching  agent,  for  the  removal  of 
fruit-stains,  etc. 

Chlorine  is  the  most  efficient  as  it  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  disin- 
fectants. It  is  also  the  cheapest,  and  in  the  form  of  a  good  article  of 
chlorinated  lime  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  for  all  purposes  of  a 
general  disinfectant  and  deodorizer. 

BROMINE.— Br. 

Bromine  is  not  found  free  in  nature,  but  its  compounds  are  not 
uncommon,  occurring  in  combination  with  sodium,  potassium  silver, 
calcium,  magnesium,  etc.  It  occurs  in  Sea-Water  and  in  the  waters 
of  many  saline  springs.  It  is  usually  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  "Salt"  by  concentrating  the  mother  liquor  containing 
its  salts,  the  ••bittern."  and  treating  it  with  Chlorine,  which  displaces 
the  Bromine  from  its  (ompounds,  as  represented  in  the  equation: 
MgBr,  +  Cl,  MgCl,  -f  Bra. 

Magnesium  bromide.  Chlorine.  Magnesium  chloiide.  Bromine. 


BROMINE.  119 

Bromine. — Br. — Bromum,  U.  S. — A  heavy,  mobile,  very  volatile 
liquid,  with  a  disagreeable,  pungent  odor,  the  vapors  when  inhaled 
producing  great  irritation  of  the  air  passages.  Its  sp.  gr.  is  2.99.  At 
— 22°C.,  it  solidifies  to  a  reddish  brown  solid,  and  it  boils  at  63°C. 
Soluble  in  30  parts  of  water,  readily  in  alcohol.  The  compounds  of 
bromine  closely  resemble  those  of  chlorine  and  iodine. 

Uses. — Rarely  in  medicine  as  an  external  application  and  as  an  antiseptic. 
Bromine  Water,  the  one-per-cent  solution,  is  used  as  a  reagent. 

Bromine  must  be  preserved  in  small,  tightly-fitting  glass-stoppered 
bottles,  usually  kept  in  a  tin  box,  and  packed  in  plaster  paris.  Even  with 
these  precautions  the  whole  contents  of  a  vial  have  been  known  to  escape, 
owing  to  its  great  volatility. 

Two  preparations  of  Bromine  of  indefinite  composition  are  to  some  extent 
employed  in  medicine:  Bromine  Chloride,  a  liquid  soluble  in  water; 
Iodine  Bromide,  a  liquid  soluble  in  6  to  8  parts  of  water. 

These  are  both  used  in  very  dilute  solutions  as  application  in  infectious 
diseases. 

IODINE.— I. 

Like  chlorine  and  bromine,  this  element  does  not  occur  free  in 
nature,  and  its  compounds,  though  rather  widely  diffused,  do  not  ap- 
pear in  great  abundance.  Its  salts  occur  in  the  Ashes  or  marine  plants, 
in  certain  marine  animals,  and  in  solution  in  small  quantities  in  Sea- 
Water.  It  occurs  also  in  combination  with  silver,  lead,  and  in 
Saline  Waters  in  combination  with  sodium,  magnesium  and  potassium. 

It  is  principally  obtained  from  "kelp"  or  the  ashes  of  sea-weeds, 
by  lixiviating  them,  concentrating  the  solution,  and  after  the  alkaline 
carbonates,  sulphates  and  chlorides  have  been  removed  by  crystalliza- 
tion, the  iodine  is  obtained  by  distilling  the  mother  liquor  with  Sul- 
phuric Acid  and  Manganese  Dioxide,  the  decomposition  which  takes 
place  being  represented  by  the  following  equation: 

2NaI  +  3HjSO,  +  MnO,  =  1.2  +  2NTaHSO4  -f  MnSO,  -f  zH2O 
Sodium        Sulphuric      Manganese   Iodine          Sodium  Manganese       Water, 

iodide.  acid.  dioxide.  sulphate  (acid).        sulphate. 

Iodine. — I — lodum,  U.  S. — Dark,  lustrous,  opaque  crystals,  belong- 
ing to  the  rhombic  system.  Sp.  gr.  4.948,  soluble  in  5,000  parts 
Water;  in  10  parts  Alcohol.  Fusing  point  between  113°  and  ii5°C.; 
boiling  point  about  2oo°C.,  when  beautiful  violet  vapors  are  given  off. 
Iodine  sublimes  slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  a  crystal  laid 
upon  the  skin  imparts  a  characteristic  brown  color. 

The  following  preparations  of  iodine  are  official: 

Liquor  lodi  Composites. — "Lugol's  Solution." — A  solution  con- 
taining Iodine  5  Gm.,  Potassium  Iodide  10  Gin.  in  100  Gm.  made 
with  Distilled  Water. 


120  IODINE. 

Ungucntum  lodi. — A  mixture  of  Iodine  4  Gm.,  Potassium  Iodide  i 
Gm.,  Water  2  C.C.  and  Benzoinated  Lard  93  Gin. 

Tinctura  lodi. — Iodine  7  Gm.,  Alcohol  to  make  100  C.C. 

Amylum  lodatum. — A  mixture  of  Starch  95  parts,  Iodine  5  parts,  Water 
to  make  loo  parts;  was  formerly  official  for  testing  purposes. 

The  following  compound  with  an  Organic  radical  may  also  be 
mentioned: 

lodofonn. —  CHIS.  —  lodoformum,  U.  S.,  formed  by  the  action  of 
Iodine  upon  Alcohol,  Ether  and  various  compounds  of  the  ether 
series,  in  the  presence  of  one  of  the  fixed  Alkalies  or  Alkaline  Car- 
bonates. 

Properties. — Small  lemon-yellow,  hexagonal  crystals  in  the  form  of  thin, 
lustrous  scales.  They  are  unctuous  to  the  touch,  with  an  odor  resembling 
Saffron,  and  a  peculiar  sweetish  and  unpleasant  iodine-like  taste.  But 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  soluble  in  So  parts  of  alcohol,  a  sp.  gr.  of  2.0  and, 
like  iodine,  volatilizes  slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  lodoformi;  10  per  cent. 

Uses. — Principally  in  the  official  ointment  by  substituting  petrolatum  for 
benzoinated  lard.  Also  in  the  form  of  powder  as  an  external  application. 
The  odor  may  be  partially  masked  by  the  addition  of  4  per  cent  of  thymol, 
menthol  or  coumarin.  (See  National  Formulary). 

The  following  preparation  of  Hydriodic  Acid  is  official: 
Syrup    Hydriodic    Acid.  —  Syrupus    Acidi    Hydriodici,    U.    S. — A 
syrupy   liquid    containing    about    i    per  cent   by  weight  of   absolute 
Hydriodic  Acid,  HI,  or  about  13  Gm.  in  1,000  C.C. 

It  is  made  by  acting  upon  Potassium  Iodide  with  Tartaric  Acid.  Hydri- 
odic Acid  is  liberated  and  the  Potassium  Tartrate  formed  is  precipitated 
by  the  Alcohol  in  the  solution  at  a  reduced  temperature.  The  decomposi- 
tion of  the  HI  into  free  Iodine  is  prevented  by  the  presence  of  the  Sugar 
and  a  little  Hypophosphorous  Acid  in  the  Syrup. 

Uses. — As  a  substitute  for  Iodides  in  doses  from  5  to  10  C.C. 

The  other  compounds  of  iodine  which  are  of  importance  pharma- 
ceutically  are  treated  of  under  other  headings. 


Sulphur. — Phosphorus. — Arsenic 

SULPHUR.— S. 

This  is  an  abundant  element  in  nature,  occurring  both  free  and  in 
Combination  with  various  metals.  Sulphur  in  a  very  pure  form  is 
found  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  but  the  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  sulphur  used  in  medicines  comes  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Mt.  A:Ar\i\.  It  is  usually  more  or  less  mixed  with  earth,  but  is  purified 
by  fusion  or  sublimation. 

Roll  Sulpliur  or  brimstone  is  pre pared  by  pouring  the  melted  sul- 
phur into  moulds. 

Sublimed  Sulphur.—  Sulphur  Sublimatum,  U.  S. — Also  called  "flow- 
ers of  sulphur,"  is  obtained  by  volatilizing  the  sulphur  and  condens- 
ing it  in  a  large  chamber.  It  usually  contains  a  small  quantity  of 
eulphuric  acid,  and  sometimes  also  arsenous  sulphide  as  impurities. 

Sulphur  is  insoluble  in  water,  slightly  soluble  in  hot,  absolute  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform  and  benzol,  depositing  upon  cooling  in  the  form  of 
crystals.  It  is  soluble  in  hot  aqueous  solutions  of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline 
earths,  forming  sulphides  and  very  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide. 

PREPARATIONS. 

Washed  Sulphur. — Sulphur  Lotum,  U.  S. — Prepared  by  washing 
sublimed  sulphur  thoroughly,  first  with  Water  of  Ammonia  and  then 
v:ith  Distilled  Water  to  remove  the  above-named  impurities. 

Off.  Prep. — Pulvis  Glycyrrhizce  comp. 

Sulphur  Iodide. — Sulphuris  lodidum,  U.  S. — Prepared  by  fusing  a 
mixt.ire  of  one  part  of  Sulphur  and  four  parts  of  Iodine,  in  a  flask,  to  a 
homogeneous  mass. 

Precipitated  Sulphur. — Sulphur  Prcecipitatum,  U.  S. — Is  prepared 
by  heating  together  freshly  slaked  Lime,  Sublimed  Sulphur  and  Water 
to  make  a  solution  of  Calcium  Sulphide,  separated  by  filtration,  then 
adding  Hydrochloric  Acid  to  precipitate  the  sulphur,  collecting,  thor- 
oughly vrashing  and  drying  the  precipitate. 

This  article  is  found  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  "Milk,"  or  "Lac 
Sulphur,"  and  consists  largely  of  calcium  sulphate,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
sulphuiic  acid,  instead  of  hydrochloric  acid,  is  ignorantly  employed  to  pre- 
cipitate the  sulphur. 

Sulphur  <9//;/w/v//.— Unguentum  Sulphuris,  U.  S.— 30  Gr.i.  Sulphur 
to  70  Gm.  Benzoinated  Lard. 


142  SULPHUR  AMD 

SULPHUR    COMPOUNDS. 

These  are  very  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  of  importance  in 
pharmacy,  but,  as  they  are  treated  of  elsewhere  in  these  lectures,  only 
\he  following  will  be  mentioned  here: 

Hydrogen  Sulphide. — H^S. — Or  Hydrosulphuric  Acid. — A  gas  with 
a  disagreeable  odor  as  of  decayed  eggs,  soluble  in  water,  poisonous 
when  respired  in  the  concentrated  form,  and  blackening  paper  which 
has  been  soaked  in  solution  of  lead  acetate. 

It  precipitates  many  of  the  metals  from  solution  as  sulphides,  and  is 
therefore  valuable  as  a  reagent  in  pharmaceutical  chemistry,  the  Solu- 
tion being  official. 

Hydrogen  Sulphide  or  •'  Sulphureted  hydrogen,"  as  it  is  most  frequently 
termed,  is  given  off  when  some  metals  are  dissolved  in  acids,  as  in  the 
preparation  of  solutions  of  the  chlorides  of  iron,  zinc,  etc.,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  Sulphur  as  an  impurity. 

PHOSPHORUS.— P. 

This  element  is  not  found  free  in  nature,  but  certain  of  its  com- 
pounds are  rather  abundant.  It  exists  in  the  bones  of  animals  in  the 
form  of  Calcium  Phosphate,  and  these  constitute  its  principal  com- 
mercial source. 

It  is  known  in  t\vo  Allotropic  forms: 

Pliosphorus. — Phosphorus,  U.  S. — Is  a  transparent,  nearly  color- 
less or  yellowish,  highly  refractive  body  that  crystallizes  in  octahed- 
rons, and  at  i5°C.  has  about  the  consistency  of  wax.  Its  sp.  gr.  is 
1.83,  it  melts  at  44.3°C.  (m.2°F.);  when  heated  in  atmosphere 
free  from  oxygen,  it  boils  at  29O°C.,  yielding  a  colorless  vapor.  It  is 
almost  insoluble  in  water,  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol,  more  soluble 
in  boiling  absolute  alcohol,  slightly  soluble  in  the  volatile  oils  and 
ether,  freely  soluble  in  chloroform  and  carbon  disulphide,  and  in 
about  50  parts  of  any  fixed  oil. 

It  is  obtained  by  distilling  a  mixture  of  Calcium  Metaphosphate  and 
Charcoal  heated  to  redness,  when  the  Phosphorus  is  liberated,  and  escaping 
as  vapor  is  collected  under  Water,  condensed  and,  after  redistillation  to  free 
it  from  impurities,  is  formed  into  cylindrical  sticks. 

Owing  to  slow  oxidation,  it  is  luminous  in  the  dark,  even  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  but  does  not  inflame  until  heated  to  slightly  above  its  melt- 
ing point.  The  compounds  of  phosphorus  of  pharmaceutical  importance 
are  elsewhere  considered. 

Hy  exposure  to  the  air  it  soon  loses  its  transparency  and  becomes  "cor- 
roded" or  covered  with  a  white  coating,  which  is  also  true  when  kept  under 
water,  not  entirely  free  from  air. 

Red  or  Amorphous  Phosphorus'^  obtained  by  the  action  of  heat  and 


PHOSPHORUS.  123 

light  on  the  ordinary  form.  The  change  takes  place  at  a  temperature 
between  240  and  25o°C.  If,  however,  red  phosphorus  be  heated  to 
a  temperature  of  26o°C.,  it  changes  back  to  the  ordinary  form. 

Red  phosphorus  has  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  when  in  powder  resembles 
pulverized  iron  oxide.  In  the  massive  form  it  has  a  conchoidal  fracture,  is 
much  harder  than  ordinary  phosphorus,  undergoes  no  change  either  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  or  when  taken  into  the  alimentary  canal  of  an  animal, 
and  hence  is  not  poisonous,  and  it  does  not  take  fire  at  any  temperature 
below  24OCC.  The  commercial  product,  now  extensively  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  matches,  is  usually  n.ore  or  less  contaminated  with  ordinary 
phosphorus. 

PREPARATIONS. 

Pilnhc  Phosphori,  each  pill  containing  ^  milligram  or  TJ0  grain  of 
phosphorus. 

Oleum  Phosphoratum,  a  one  per  cent  solution  of  Phosphorus  in  Ex- 
pressed Oil  of  Almonds,  containing  10  per  cent  of  Ether. 

Spiritus  Phosfhori,  a  solution  of  ^3  of  one  per  cent  of  Phosphorus 
in  absolute  alcohol. 

/.V/.v/y  Phosphori,  made  from  the  Spirit,  and  contains  i  mg.  (V-r  gr. ) 
of  Phosphorus  in  4  C.C.  (i  il.  drm.). 

I'ses. — For  internal  administration  Phosohorus  should  be  largely  diluted 
with  an  excipient  or  vehicle,  as  in  the  above  preparations. 

Phosphorus,  owing  to  its  inflammable  character,  must  always  be  kept  in  a 
strong  bottle  and  be  well  covered  with  water.  In  order  to  prevent  accidents, 
which  may  occur  by  the  accidental  fracturing  of  the  bottle,  it  should  be 
placed  in  a  stone  jar  in  a  safe  location.  The  same  precaution  is  necessary 
to  observe  in  dispensing  it,  especially  to  guard  against  exposing  it  even  for 
a  short  time  without  being  covered  with  water,  or  mixed  with  some  other 
substance  serving  to  exclude  the  air. 

ARSENIC.— As. 

Arsenic  occurs  in  the  free  state  in  nature,  but  much  more  frequently 
in  a  state  of  combination.  Such  natural  compounds  are  the  sulphides, 
known  as  Orpiment  and  Realgar,  arsenons  oxide,  and  various  minerals, 
in  which  it  is  found  associated  with  metals.  It  is  frequently  present 
in  iron  pyrites  and  native  sulphur,  and  hence  finds  its  way  into  sul- 
phuric acid.  It  is  also  found  in  certain  ferruginous  deposits  from 
mineral  waters,  nearly  all  of  which,  as  well  as  sea-water,  contain 
traces  of  arsenic. 

Arsenic  in  the  elementary  fonn  occurs  in  two  modifications,  amorphous 
and  crystalline,  viz:  Amorphous  &a&  crystallized  arsenic,  which  differ  also  in 
specific  gravity.  Arsenic  volatilixes  at  iSo°C.  without  previously  fusing.  It 
does  not  change  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  but  when  heated  it  burns  with  a 
bluish-colored  rlame,  forming  arsenic  trioxide,  and  disseminating  the  pecul- 
iar alliaceous  odor.  Arsenic  and  nearly  all  its  compounds  are  exceedingly 


124  ARSENIC   COMPOUNDS 

poisonous.     In  its  uncombined  state  it  is  chiefly  used  for  the  purpose  of 
hardening  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  shot. 

ARSENIC    AND    ITS    COMPOUNDS. 

Arsiin;  or  "Arsenetted  Hydrogen."— AsH3.— Is  an  extremely  poisonous 
gas,  having  a  very  peculiar  and  characteristic  smell.  It  burns  with  a  pale- 
bluish  flame,  evolving  dense  white  fumes  of  arsenic  trioxide.  On  holding  a 
cold  piece  of  white  porcelain  in  the  flame,  metallic  arsenic  is  deposited  as  a 
brown  or  black  shining  mirror. 

If  the  gas  be  passed  through  a  hard-glass  tube,  which  is  heated  by  means 
of  a  glass  flame  placed  beneath  it,  the  arsenic  is  deposited  near  the  heated 
portion  of  the  tube,  in  the  form  of  a  bright,  shining  mirror.  Upon  this 
delicate  reaction  depends  the  application  of  Marsh's  test,  which  is  the  one 
most  frequently  employed  for  the  detection  of  small  quantities  of  arsenical 
compounds. 

Arsenic  Iodide. — AsI3. — Arseni  lodidum,  U.  S. — Is  a  direct  com- 
bination of  Arsenic  and  Iodine.  It  is  soluble  in  7  parts  of  water  and 
30  parts  alcohol. 

It  is  official  in  the  form  of  the  Iodides  of  Mercury  and  Arsenic  Solution 
containing  i  per  cent  of  each. 

Arsenous  Acid. — As.,Os. — Acidum  Arsenosum,  U.  S. — Chemically 
considered  this  is  not  an  acid,  but  arsenous  trioxide,  or  arsenous  an- 
hydride. When  the  oxide  is  dissolved  in  water,  true  Arsenous  Acid, 
H3AsO3,  is  formed;  hence,  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  arsenous  oxide 
exhibits  an  acid  reaction. 

A  heavy,  white  solid,  existing  either  in  the  amorphous  or  crystalline 
condition,  and  the  specific  gravity  varying  according  to  its  condition  from 
3.738  to  3.689.  The  amorphous  modification  has  the  higher  specific  gravity, 
and  is  transparent  or  semi-transparent,  but  on  standing  becomes  opaque  by 
the  formation  of  minute  octahedral  crystals  at  the  surface.  This  process 
goes  on  gradually  from  the  surface  toward  the  interior  until  the  entire  mass 
becomes  crystalline.  The  appearance  of  the  mass  then  resembles  porcelain. 
On  heating  it  carefully  to  a  temperature  of  2i8°C.  it  volatilizes  without  melting, 
and  the  cooled  vapor  deposits  minute  octahedral  crystals. 

Solubility. — Its  solubility  in  water  varies  with  its  physical  condition, 
sometimes  requiring  thirty  parts  and  sometimes  as  high  as  eighty  parts  of 
the  solvent.  It  is  slowly  but  completely  soluble  in  15  parts  of  boiling  water, 
and  the  solution  on  cooling  deposits  transparent,  regular  octahedral  crys- 
tals. It  is  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  very  soluble  in  glycerin,  and  freely 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  in  solutions  of  the  alkalies  and  their  car- 
bonates. 

Tests. — When  thrown  upon  ignited  charcoal  the  oxide  is  reduced,  and 
emits  an  alliaceous  odor.  Its  aqueous  solution  affords  a  lemon-yellow  pre- 
cipitate with  a  solution  of  ammonio-nitrate  of  silver,  and  a  grass-green  pre- 
cipitate with  ammonio-sulphate  of  copper.  If  the  aqueous  solution  be 
acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  a  stream  of  sulphureted  hydrogen  be 
passed  through  it,  a  bright  yellow  precipitate  of  arsenous  sulphide  will  be 


AND  PREPARATIONS.  125 

produced.  This  precipitate  is  distinguished  from  the  similar  sulphides  of 
antimony  and  tin  by  its  insolubility  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  by  its  solubility 
in  test  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate. 

The  following  methods  are  used  for  the  detection  of  arsenic  in  medico- 
legal  analyses:  Marsh's  test,  which  depends  upon  the  deposition  of  a  mir- 
ror of  metallic  arsenic  formed  by  arsine,  or  Arseniureted  Hydrogen.  The 
tests  of  Bettendorff,  Fleitmann  and  Gutzeit  are  more  simple  and  are  recog- 
nized in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  (See  Reagents,  p.  466.) 

Arsenous  acid  is  a  powerful  irritant  poison,  and  as  it  is  the  com- 
monest form  in  which  arsenic  occurs  in  commerce,  the  majority  of 
the  cases  of  arsenical  poisoning  are  produced  by  it.  The  maximum 
safe  dose  for  an  adult  is  about  ^  of  a  grain  (0.006,  or  6  mg.).  The 
best  antidote  is  Ferric  Hydrate  with  Magnesia. 

(For  the  preparation  of  the  latter  see  the  U.  S.  Ph.) 
The  following  Solutions  of  Arsenic  and  its  Compounds  aie  official: 
They  are  all  of  the  uniform  strength  of  one  per  cent;  containing  10 
Gm.  in  1000  C.C. 

Liquor  Acidi  Arsenosi;  Solution  of  Arsenous  Acid. 
Liquor  Arseni  et  Hydrargyri  lodidi;  Donovan's  Solution. 
Liquor  Potassii  Arsenitis;  Fowler's  Solution. 
Liquor  Sodii  Arsenatis;  Solution  of  Sodium  Arsenate. 


Boron.— Carbon.— Silicon. 

BORON.— B. 

Boron  docs  not  occur  in  the  free  state  in  nature,  but  is  found  com- 
bined with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  to  form  Boric  Acid  and  also  in  the 
tbrm  of  certain  salts  of  this  acid,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Borax. 

Boron  is  obtained  in  two  Allotropic  forms,  one  crystalline,  the  other 
amorphous. 

The  first  form  consists  of  monoclinic,  octohedra  or  prisms,  which  have  a 
busier  and  hardness  exceeded  only  by  the  diamond.  Their  sp.  gr.  is  2.68. 

The  second  form  is  a  dark  brown,  tasteless  and  odorless  powder,  but 
^lightly  soluble  in  water,  a  very  bad  conductor  of  electricity,  and  fuses  only 
at  a  very  high  temperature. 

Neither  of  these  is  used  in  pharmacy.  They  are  rather  rare  and  ex- 
pensive products  of  the  chemical  laboratory. 

COMPOUNDS    OF    BORON. 

Borax. — XaJ^O,  +  loH.'O. — Sodii  Boras,  U.  S.,  Sodium  Borate. 

In  crystalline,  transparent,  shining,  colorless,  somewhat  efflorescent 
crystals,  having  a  mild,  cooling,  and  somewhat  alkaline  taste  and 
reaction.  Soluble  in  16  parts  of  water  at  i5°C.  in  one  part  of 
glycerin  at  8o°C.,  insoluble  in 'alcohol;  when  heated  parting  with  its 
water  of  crystallization,  first  swelling  up  into  a  porous  mass  and  then 
fusing  into  a  transparent  glass. 

Uses. — In  various  analytical  operations  in  the  laboratory,  and  in  medicine, 
as  ingredient  of  detergent  antiseptic  washes  such  as  the  Glycerite  of  Borax, 
and  Honey  of  Borax,  both  formerly  official.  Borax  is  largely  used  in  the 
powdered  form  to  destroy  cockroaches,  etc.  In  the  form  of  Boro-glyceride 
it  is  used  extensively  as  an  antiseptic  dressing,  and  to  preserve  meats  and 
vegetables. 

Boric  Aciit. — Acidum  Boricum,  U.  S. — A  tribasic  acid  having  the 
formula  H3B(  )3. 

Transparent,  shining,  six-sided  plates,  which  are  somewhat  unctuous 
to  the  touch,  permanent  in  the  air,  odorless,  bitterish,  feebly  acid, 
changing  blue  litmus  paper  to  red.  and  turmeric  paper  to  brown,  the 
brown  color  of  the  latter  not  being  altered  in  the  presence  of  free 
hydrochloric  acid.  At  i5°C.  it  is  soluble  in  25.6  parts  of  water,  and 
at  ioo°C'.  in  3  parts.  It  is  soluble  in  1 5  parts  of  alcohol  at  i5°C. 
and  in  5  parts  of  boiling  alcohol  and  in  TO  parts  glycerin. 

Sonny's. — The   principal    commercial   source   of   boric   acid   is    the 


BORON   COMPOUNDS.  127 

steam  jets  or  fumaroles  that  issue  from  the  earth  in  some  districts  in 
Tuscany.  The  acid  that  issues  in  these  jets  collects  in  the  waters  of 
the  lagoons  or  lakelets  formed  near  the  orifices  whence  the  jets  issue, 
and  is  obtained  in  the  crystalline  form  by  evaporation.  Borax  is 
produced  by  treating  the  concentrated  solution  with  Sodium  Carbonate. 
Borax  occurs  as  a  crystalline  deposit  in  a  lake  in  California,  and  is 
also  prepared  from  various  borates,  found  in  Nevada  and  South 
America. 

Phann.  Uses. — Chiefly  valuable  for  its  anti-fermentative  and  anti-putres- 
cent  properties.  It  is  sometimes  administered  internally,  but  more  com- 
monly as  an  external  application,  combined  with  an  absorbent  powder  such 
as  starch;  or  in  solution  or  in  the  form  of  ointment  prepared  with  petrola- 
tum. Owing  to  the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  obtained  in  fine  powder  in  the 
preparation  of  ointments,  the  acid  should  be  first  triturated  with  a  portion 
of  the  fused  fat  in  a  hot  mortar  before  the  whole  of  the  fat  is  incorporated. 
Boric  acid  may  be  obtained  in  the  dry  powdered  form  by  triturating  it  with 
a  few  drops  of  ether  or  glycerin.  A  saturated  solution  in  hot  water  gradu- 
ally poured  into  a  large  quantity  of  cold  water  with  constant  stirring,  yields 
the  acid  in  a  fine  state  of  division. 

Preparations. — Boro-glyceride  prepared  by  heating  62  parts  of  boric 
acid  with  92  parts  01"  glycerin  to  i5o°C. ,  until  aqueous  vapors  cease  to 
rise. 

As  this  congeals  to  a  gelatinous  mass,  inconvenient  to  dispense,  it 
is  chiefly  used  in  5-o-per-cent  solution  of  glycerin,  the  Glyceritum 
Boroglycerini  of  the  U.  S.  Ph. 

CARBON.— C. 

This  element  exists  in  three  modifications,  diamond,  graphite  and 
charcoal.  The  two  former  are  of  but  slight  importance  in  pharmacy, 
but  Charcoal,  on  account  of  the  property  it  possesses  of  condensing 
large  quantities  of  oxygen  and  other  gases  on  the  surface  of  its  parti- 
cles, has  important  uses.  By  virtue  of  this  property  it  absorbs  the 
foul-smelling  gases  produced  by  the  decay  of  organic  matter  and 
causes  their  oxidation,  bleaches  solutions  containing  organic  coloring 
matter,  etc. 

Animal  Charcoal. — Carbo  Animalis,  l\  S. — This  is  prepared  by 
burning  the  bones  of  Animals  with  a  limited  supply  of  Air. 

It  occurs  in  the  granulated  form,  which  is  best  adapted  to  pharmacal  uses, 
and  as  a  dull  black  powder.  When  a  portion  of  it  is  ignited  in  the  open 
air,  a  white  residue,  called  bone-ash,  remains.  This  ash  constitutes  about 
85$  °f  tne  weight  cf  the  charcoal  and  should  be  almost  completely  soluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid  with  the  aid  of  heat. 

Purified   Animal   Charcoal.      Carbo  Animalis    Purificatus,  U.    S. — 


128  CARBON   AND 

Consists  of  ordinary  animal  charcoal  from  which  the  Bone-Ash  has 
been  removed  by  boiling  it  with  Hydrochloric  Acid,  leaving  the 
nearly  pure  carbon  residue. 

Wood  Charcoal.  -  Carbo  Ligni,  U.  S. — This  is  prepared  by  burning 
Wood  with  a  limited  supply  of  Air,  until  all  the  volatile  portions  have 
been  driven  off  or  consumed. 

For  pharmaceutical  purposes  that  prepared  from  soft  wood  is  preferred, 
its  chief  use  being  as  an  ingredient  in  Dentifrices  and  sometimes  internally 
as  an  antacid. 

CARBON"     COMPOUNDS. 

These  are  very  numerous  and  important.  All  Organic  compound:* 
come  under  this  head.  Of  the  organic  compounds,  Carbon  Dioxide 
(carbonic  acid)  and  Hydrocyanic  Acid  only  will  be  treated  here;  the 
carbonates  will  be  treated  under  their  respective  metals. 

Carbon  Disulphidc. — CSj.  — Carbonei  Disulphidum,  U.  S. — Or 
Carbon  Bisulphide,  as  it  is  commonly  termed.  A  clear,  colorless, 
strongly  refractive,  very  volatile  and  inflammable  liquid,  having  a  strong, 
disagreeable  odor  and  a  sharp  aromatic  taste.  It  is  almost  insoluble 
in  water,  and  its  sp.  gr.  is  1.268.  It  is  prepared  by  adding  Sulphur 
to  Charcoal  heated  to  redness,  and  condensing  the  vapor. 

It  has  anresthetic  properties,  but  its  principal  pharmaceutical  uses  are  as 
a  solvent;  caoutchouc,  iodine  and  some  other  substances,  almost  insoluble 
!n  ordinary  solvents,  being  readily  soluble  in  it. 

Carbonic  Acid.  — Acidum  Carbonicum. — This  is  a  dibasic  acid 
naving  the  formula  ILC();j.  It  is  not  stable  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
decomposing  into  H_>O  and  CO2,  hence  it  is  mainly  known  through 
its  compounds,  the  carbonates. 

When  Carbon  Dioxide  is  forced  into  water,  as  in  charging  soda 
fountains,  the  water  acquires  a  pleasant  acid  taste,  and  a  slight  acid 
reaction,  which  is  doubtless  due  to  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  by 
the  union  of  the  carbon  dioxide  with  water.  Carbonic  acid  is  a  feeble 
acid,  being  readily  displaced  from  its  combinations  by  the  mineral 
and  many  of  the  organic,  acids.  As  the  displaced  acid  escapes  it  is 
immediately  decomposed,  and  the  escaping  gas,  CO_>,  produces  effer- 
vescence. Frequently  the  chemical  affinity  between  the  carbonic  acid 
and  the  base  is  so  feeble  in  the  carbonates  that  a  moderate  heat  suffices 
for  their  decomposition.  Calcium  carbonate  affords  a  familiar  illus- 
tration. 

Cst-s. — Although  carbonic  acid,  save  in  the  form  of  carbonated  waters, 
has  little  use  in  pharmacy,  many  of  the  carbonates  are  of  great  importance. 
(These  arc  treated  under  the  metals  with  which  it  forms  compounds). 


SILICON.  129 

Hydrocyanic  Acid. — HCN. — Acidum  Hydrocyanicum. — Carbon 
and  Nitrogen  unite  to  form  the  Compound  radical  Cyanogen,  CN. 
With  Hydrogen  this  forms  an  acid,  Hydrocyanic  Acid,  HCN,  which 
although  containing  Carbon  and  therefore  an  Organic  Acid,  may  be 
treated  here. 

It  occurs  naturally  in  some  vegetable  structures,  as  in  bitter  almonds, 
cherry  laurel,  etc. ,  but  for  the  purposes  of  pharmacy  it  is  obtained  by 
distilling  Potassium  Ferrocyanide  (prussiate)  with  Sulphuric  Acid  and 
Water  (hence  also  the  name  prussic  acid).  It  may  also  be  readily  ob- 
tained from  the  Silver  Cyanide  by  agitating  the  salt  with  dilute 
Hydrochloric  Acid.  (See  U.  S.  Ph.). 

The  pure  anhydrous  acid  is  a  colorless,  very  mobile  and  volatile  liquid, 
having  the  odor  of  bitter  almonds.  It  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  of  poisons, 
and  when  taken  internally  so  small  a  dose  as  .05  of  a  grain  has  been  known 
to  produce  death.  Its  soluble  salts  are  also  for  the  most  part  highly  poison- 
ous. All  preparations  of  it  must  be  handled,  therefore,  with  the  greatest 
care. 

The  diluted  acid  is  the  only  kind  used  in  medicine: 
Diluted  Hydrocyanic    Acid. — Acidum    Hydrocyanicum    Dilutum, 
U.  S. — Prussic  Acid. — A  liquid  composed  of  2  per  cent  by  weight  of 
absolute  Acid,  HCN,  and  98  per  cent  of  Water. 

As  the  acid  is  highly  volatile,  the  solution  will  rapidly  deteriorate 
unless  kept  in  small,  dark,  amber-colored,  cork-stoppered  vials  in  a 
cool  place.  It  cannot  even  with  these  precautions  be  kept  very  long 
without  deterioration,  as  the  acid  is  slowly  decomposed  and  it  should 
therefore  be  replaced  at  least  once  yearly. 

Uses. — The  official  dilute  acid  has  a  restricted  use  in  medicine,  and  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  2  or  3  minims. 

SILICON.— Si. 

Silicon  is  never  found  in  the  free  state  in  nature,  although  the  most 
abundant  of  all  the  solid  elements.  It  exists  in  combination  with 
oxygen  as  silicon  dioxide  or  silica,  SiOu,  which  is  known  in  the  crys- 
talline condition  as  opal,  flint,  sand,  etc.  In  the  form  of  salts,  it 
forms  a  large  and  important  class  of  minerals  termed  silicates.  In 
combination  with  oxygen,  it  is  widely  distributed  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  being  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants,  and  in  the  stems  of  cereals. 

Sodium  Silicate. — NaoSiO3. — Is  official  in  the  form  of  aqueous  solution 
containing  about  60  per  cent  of  the  salt;  also  known  as  "Soluble  Glass." 
Sp.  gr.  1.30  to  1.40. 

Liquor  SoJii  Silicatis. — Solution  Sodium  Silicate,  used  chiefly  for  surgical 
purposes,  in  the  preparation  of  mechanical  dressings  and  as  a  cement. 


Ammonium   and   Its   Compounds. 

The  combination  of  Nitrogen  and  Hydrogen,  known  as  Ammonium. 
MI4,  is  not  found  free  and  has  never  been  isolated. 

The  compound  known  as  Ammonia  (Jas.  NH.;,  occurs  in  the  at- 
mosphere, in  natural  waters  and  in  the  Karth. 

Its  chief  source  is  a  product  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood 
and  coal,  and  from  this  all  its  compounds  are  directly  obtained. 

Its  compounds  are  frequently  classed  with  the  alkalies,  and  ils  gen- 
eral characters  are  the  same,  c\cc|  t  in  one  important  particular. 
namely:  That  all  its  compounds  are  7v/<///»ut  a  moderate  temperature. 

Salts  of  Ammonium  evolve  ammonia  gas  \\hen  heated  \\ith  alkali 
hydrates,  the  gas  forms  white  \apors  with  Hydrochloric  Acid,  con- 
densable into  Ammonium  Chloride,  and.  similarly  to  the  Alkalies,  it 
saponifies  fats  and  /wAvvv  vegetable  blues  that  have  been  reddened 
by  Acids. 

AMMONIA   AM)   ITS   !  'RKI'A  RAT  IONS. 

Ainnii>nia. — NII3. — The  gas  may  readily  be  obtained  by  heating 
any  Ammonium  salt  with  an  alkali,  such  as  Soda  or  1'ota-h.  or  an  alka- 
line earth,  such  a-;  l.ime.  The  iollowing  equation  indicates  the  re- 
action: 


Ammonium    Chloride.       "Sal    Ammoniac"    i  muriate   of  ammonia  > 
being  cheap,  is  the  salt  usually  employed  for  the  purpose,  and  in  order 
to  insure  the  complete  decomposition  of  the  salt  an  e\<  e<s    of  lime 
used. 

Ammonia  is  a  colorless  ga^.  with   a   pungent    odor,    strong   alkali:. 
reaction,    and   a  sp.  gr.     'taking   air  as   the   >Li.ndaru'>   of  c.^Sf).       !'. 
neutral i/es  and  forms  stable  <  (.impounds  with  t  he  acid-.     Al!  Ammoni'.: : 
<  oinpounds  are  completely  volatili/.ed  bv  heat. 

P>y  cold   and    pressure    it   ninv  lx;   ivdnerd    ;•;   the   li.jiiid    condition,    \vlm:-    '. 
forms  a  colorle.-s,  highly  refrrjrtivc,  r.1  iMlc  li  ]':M  \v!;;cii  !>.jils  ai — 3;  ~'C  .  nr 
at  --  75°C.    becomes  converted    i:ito  a   cry>trtliinc    solii.l.      Li.jv.id    amr.m:i.:r; 
quite  extensively  used  a.;  a  SLib^iiuitc  lur,  and  in  the  :;-.a::;:facu:iv  '<-t,  ic 

It  is  highly  soluble    in    water.  thi>    lio'iid    taking   up.  ai   o'C.  .;L  . 
under  the  normal  atmospheric  pressure,  more   than    i.ico   volumes 
the  ga<.      Tile  gas    is    j>rc'bably    r.ot   merelv    di— olved.    bv.t    a    p«r 


I3S  AMMONIA    PREPARATION'S. 

•  •'ntt-rs  into  combination  with  water,  forming  NH4HO,  or  Ammonium 
Hydrate.  This  compound  has,  however,  never  been  isolated. 

Water  of  Ammonia.  Aqua  Ammonia;,  U.  S. — An  aqueous  solu- 
tion containing  10  percent  by  weight  of  the  gas.  Is  a  colorless, 
transparent  liquid  of  a  very  pungent  odor,  and  a  strongly  acrid 
alkaline  taste  and  alkaline  reaction.  Its  sp.  gr.  at  i5°C.  is  0.960. 

Off.  frt'/>.-  Linimentum  Ammoniaj;  Spiritus  Ammonite  Aromaticus. 

The  strength  of  the  weaker  Ammonia  Water  of  commerce  is  usually  desig- 
nated by  one  or  more  F.'s,  an  arbitrary  standard.  The  number  of  F.'s attached 
to  a  label  usually  does  not  indicate  the  percentage  strength  of  the  ammonia 
water  contained  in  it.  Although  the  mark  of  4  F.  is  supposed  to  mean  stronger 
•water  of  ammonia,  or  28  per  cent,  it  usually  indicates  about  18  per  cent. 
Pharmacists  should  insist  that  Ammonia  Water  be  designated  by  its  percentage 
.  irength  only,  when  purchasing. 

Stronger  Water  of  Ammonia.-  Aqua  Ammoniac  Fortior,  L.  S. — An 
aqueous  solution  containing  28  percent  by  weight  of  the  gas.  Its  sp. 
gr.  is  0.90.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  in  tightly-stoppered 
bottles  which  are  not  quite  filled,  and  care  should  be  exercised  in 
opening  the  bottles.  (For  tests  see  U.  S.  Ph.') 

Off.  J'rep. — Spiritus  Ammonia:. 

Uses. — As  a  precipitant  in  the  preparation  of  many  hydrates  and  salts,  held 
in  solution  by  acids,  for  example,  ferric  hydrate,  calcium  phosphate,  and  most 
of  the  alkaloids.  As  a  solvent  in  the  extraction  of  some  drugs,  and  for  neu- 
tralizing acid  solutions.  Combined  with  citric  acid  it  forms  double  salts  with 
some:  of  the  metals,  as  for  example,  bismuth  and  iron,  rendering  these  soluble. 
It  is  also  used  as  a  general  solvent  for  "grease,''  and  in  the  preparation,  of 
many  pharmaceutical  products. 

AMMOXU'M  COMPOUNDS. 

Ammonia  gas  is  a  by-product  of  gas-works,  being  found  in  the  so- 
called  gas-liquor.  .By  heating  this  liquor  with  Lime,  in  a  retort,  the 
gas  is  evolved  and  may  be  at  once  conducted  into  water  to  form  Am- 
monia Water,  or  into  aqueous  solution  of  an  Acid.  If  Sulphuric  Acid 
lie  used  Ammonium  Sulphate  is  formed;  if  Hydrochloric  Acid,  the 
Chloride  of  Ammonium  or  "Sal  Ammoniac"  is  obtained  by  crystalliza- 
tion. 

From  either  of  these  compounds  all  the  other  Ammonium  Com- 
pounds are  produced. 

Ammonium  Sulphate.  — (NH4/).jSO4.  — Ammonii  Sulphas. —Colorless, 
transparent,  rhombic  prisms,  permanent  in  air,  odorless,  possessing  a 
sharp  saline  taste,  and  neutral  reaction.  Soluble  in  1.3  parts  of  water 
at  15°.  insoluble  in  absolute  alcohol.  It  is  not  official. 

Ammonium    Ch!<>riJ<-. — XH.C1.      Ammonii    Chloridum.     I".    S. 


AMMONIUM    COMPOUNDS.  139 

Muriate  of  Ammonia. — In  the  crude  state  it  occurs  in  tough,  fibrous 
crystalline  masses.  The  pure  official  salt  is  a  snow-white  crystalline 
powder,  with  a  cooling,  saline  taste,  without  odor,  a  slightly  acid  re- 
action, permanent  in  the  air,  and  on  heating  with  caustic  potassa  or 
lime,  evolving  ammonia  gas. 

l*rt-paration.  —  The  pure  or  granulated  form,  the  only  kind  now  official,  is  pre- 
pared from  the  crude  Sal  Ammoniac  by  dissolving  it  in  about  twice  its  weight 
of  hot  water,  adding  a  little  chlorine  water  to  convert  any  ferrous  chloride 
present  into  a  ferric  salt,  then  ammonia  in  excess,  which  precipitates  the  iron 
present  in  the  form  of  ferric  hydrate.  The  liquid  is  then  filtered,  and  the 
clear  filtrate  evaporated  until  a  pellicle  forms,  when  it  is  allowed  to  cool  and 
crystallize;  or  it  may  be  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness  in  a  shallow  vessel,  and 
the  granular,  crystalline  powder  dried  between  sheets  of  filter  paper.  Its 
preparation  is  well  adapted  to  the  beginner  as  the  first  chemical  to  he  made  in 
the  pharmacy. 

Off.  Prep.  —  Trochisci  Ammonii  Chloridi. 

Ammonium  Carbonate.  —  (NH4)  HCO3.  (NH4)(NH2)C(^.  Ammonii 
Carbonas,  U.  S. — This  salt  is  probably  in  reality  a  mixture  of  acid 
carbonate  and  carbamate  of  ammonium  as  expressed  in  the  above 
formulas,  instead  of  a  true  carbonate. 

White,  translucent  masses,  with  odor  of  ammonia,  and  giving  out 
both  ammonia  and  carbon  dioxide  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Taste- 
saline,  reaction  alkaline.  It  must  be  kept  in  tightly  closed  jars,  to 
protect  it  from  the  air. 

Made  by  heating  a  mixture  of  Chalk  and  Ammonium  Chloride.  The  Ammo- 
nium Carbonate,  sublimes  and  is  collected  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  vessel,  or 
in  a  receiver. 

Uses. — As  an  ingredient  in  "smelling  salts"  and  in  the  two  official  prepara- 
tions. In  conjunction  with  syrups  of  acid  reaction,  such  as  squill  and  glyc- 
yrrhiza  for  cough  syrups,  the  ammonium  carbonate  reacting  with  the  acids 
should  be  gradually  dissolved  in  a  mortar,  with  the  addition  nf  -.vater  when 
permissible,  so  as  to  prevent  frothing. 

Off.  Prep. — Liquor  Ammonii  Acetatis;  Spirittis  Ammonia  Aro- 
maticus. 

Ammonium  Acetate.  —  (NH4)C2H3O.2.— A  solution  made  !>y  saturat- 
ing dilute  Acetic  Acid  with  Ammonium  Carbonate,  constitutes 
Liquor  Ammonii  Acetatis,  U.  S.,  or  Spirit  of  Mendereru>. 

This  preparation  should  always  be  prepared  extemporaneously.  MHO-  when 
fresh  it  is  a  most  refreshing  draught  to  feverish  patients,  while  it  rapidly  loses 
its  carbonic  acid,  and  then  possesses  a  disagreeable  saline,  frequently  decidedly 
alkaline,  taste.  The  pure  acid  (U.  S.  Ph.,  not  the  commercial  so-called  N>->  •>) 
should  be  used,  properly  diluted,  and  the  ammonium  carbonate,  in  transluci-nt 
pieces,  gradually  added  with  constant  stirring,  until  only  a  slight  effervescence 


1 4o  AMMONIUM 

takes  place.  The  solution  is  then  poured  in  a  vial,  which  must  be  well  corked 
so  as  to  preserve  the  carbonic  acid.  When  administered,  the  preparation, 
owing  to  its  sparkling  character  and  pleasant  acidity,  foro>s  a  cooling  and  most 
agreeable  potion. 

Off.  Pr,'f>. — Misturu  Kerri  ct  Ammonii  Acetatis. 

The  following  arc-  all  made  by  saturating  their  respective  Acid:; 
with  Ammonia  Water  and  obtaining  the  Salt  by  crystallization. 

They  may  be  made  extemporaneously  (as  wanted)  and  kept  in  solu- 
tion. By  referring  to  table  on  page  551  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  the  respec- 
tive quantities  of  Acids  and  Alkalies  required  to  produce  100  parts  of 
the  Salt  may  be  seen  at  a  glance. 

Ammonium  Bcnzoatc.  —  (NH^C-H/X-. — Ammonii  Benzoas,  U.  S.— 
A  \vhite  crystalline  salt  having  a  slight  odor  of  Benzoic  Acid,  and  a 
saline,  bitter  and  highly  acrid  taste,  made  by  saturating  Benzoic  Acid 
with  Ammonia  Water  and  evaporating,  keeping  the  ammonia  in  ex- 
cess until  crystals  begin  to  form. 

Soluble  in  5  parts  of  water  and  2<S  parts  of  alcohol. 

Ammonium  Bromide. — XH4Br. — Ammonii  Bromidum,  U.  S. — A 
transparent  crystalline  or  white  granular  salt,  changing  to  yellowish 
on  exposure  to  the  air.  and  having  a  pungent  saline  taste. 

It  is  prepared  by  agitating  iron  wire  with  a  solution  of  bromine  until  the 
odor  of  bromine  can  no  longer  be  perceived,  thus  forming  Ferrous  Bromide, 
adding  Ammonia  Water  to  excess,  filtering  and  evaporating  to  dryness. 

L  '.<,:(. — Mostly  in  the  form  of  Elixir  containing  10  grains  to  the  fluid  dram 
Soluble  in  i  5  parts  of  water  and  30  parts  of  alcohol. 

Ammonium  Citrate.  -  Made  by  saturating  a  solution  of  Citric  Acid 
with  Water  of  Ammonia  so  as  to  be  of  a  faint  alkaline  reaction,  recog- 
ni/.ed  by  a  slight  odor  of  ammonia. 

l.'st's. — -As  a  solvent  for  many  salts  especially  in  Klixirs;  with  iron  and  bis- 
muth it  forms  soluble  double  compounds,  vi/:  Ammonio-citrate  of  iron  and 
ammonio-citrate  of  bismuth  These  will  be  treated  under  their  respective 
metals. 

Aminoiiiim  /o./n/<.  —  NH4I. — Ammonii  lodidum,  U.  S. — A  white, 
granular,  deliquescent  salt,  changing  to  yellow  or  yellowish-brown 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  in  which  form  it  should  not  be  dispensed. 
odorless  when  white  but  with  a  faint  odor  of  iodine  when  colored  bv 
exposure:  a  sharp  saline  taste,  and  a  neutral  reaction.  It  is  prepared 
by  saturating  Ammonia  Water  with  Hydriodic  Acid.  Soluble  in  i 
part  of  water  and  9  parts  alcohol. 

C.ft's. — A  spirit,  prepared  by  mixing  an  alcoholic  solution  of  iodine  with 
strong  ammonia  water  in  such  proportion  as  to  yield  a  colorless  product,  con- 
sisting of  ammonium  iodide  and  ethyl  iodide  This  has  been  erroneously 


COMPOUNDS.  I4i 

termed  "decolorized  tincture  of  iodine."     [For  formula  see  the   Dispensatory 
and  National  Formulary.  ] 

Ammonium  Nitrate. — NH4NO,.  -Ammonii  Nitras,  I'.  S. — Color- 
less, usually  rhombic  prismatic  crystals,  somewhat  deliquescent,  odor- 
less, with  a  sharp  bitter  taste  and  neutral  reaction.  Dissolves  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  in  half  its  weight  of  water  and  in  20  parts  of 
alcohol,  and  is  much  more  freely  soluble  in  both  at  their  boiling 
points.  Completely  resolved  by  heat  into  nitrous  oxide  (laughing  gas) 
and  water. 

Made  by  saturating  dilute  Nitric  Acid  with  Ammonia  Water  or  with 
Ammonium  Carbonate. 

I  'ses. — In  dentistry  for  the  production  of  "Laughing  tias." 

Ammonium  Uxalatc. — Made  by  saturating  a  solution  of  Oxalic  Acid 
with  Ammonia,  and  crystallizing.  It  is  of  importance  in  pharma- 
ceutical chemistry  as  a  test  for  calcium,  and  the  Test  Solution  is 
official. 

Ammonium  Phosphate.  —  (XH4)_,HPO4 —  Ammonii  Phosphas. — 
Colorless,  translucent,  prismatic  crystals,  evolving  ammonia  on  ex- 
posure to  air,  odorless,  possessing  a  cooling  saline  taste,  and  neutral 
or  slightly  alkaline  reaction. 

Made  by  adding  an  excess  of  Ammonia  Water  to  dilute  Phosphoric 
Acid,  and  evaporating  slowly  until  crystals  form. 

Ammonium  Sulphide. — A  solution  made  by  saturating  Ammonia 
Water  with  Hydrogen  Sulphide.  It  is  of  importance  in  pharmaceuti- 
cal chemistry  as  a  test,  and  the  solution  is  official. 

Ammonium  I'etlerianate.  — (XH4/iC5H,,O;,.  — Ammonii  Yalerianas, 
V.  S  — White  or  colorless,  tabular  crystal^,  deliquescent  in  moist  air, 
possessing  the  peculiar  odor  of  valerianic  acid,  a  >harp,  sweetish  taste 
and  a  neutral  reaction.  Freely  soluble  in  both  water  and  alcohol. 

It  is  made  by  passing  dry  Ammonia  Gas  into  Valerianic  Acid  when  the  salt 
crystallizes  out.  On  a  large  scale,  however,  it  is  prepared  from  Fusel  Oil 
(amylic  alcohol),  which  bears  the  same  relation  to  valerianic  acid  as  ordinary 
alcohol  bears  to  acetic  acid,  and  like  the  last  named  alcohol  is  converted  into 
its  respective  acid  by  oxidation. 

L'set. — Principally  in  the  form  of  Elixirs  containing  two  grains  to  the  fluid 
rlram.  Solutions  of  the  salt  must  be  carefully  neutralized  with  ammonia  so  ae 
to  prevent  the  volatilization  of  the  acid,  to  which  the  disagreeable  odor  is  du« 
[See  Rational  Formulary.] 


Potassium. 

Although  potassium  does  not  occur  free  in  nature,  it  is  a  widely 
distributed  and  rather  abundant  metal.  It  occurs  in  many  silicates,  as 
l-'eldspar,  Leucite,  etc.;  as  Chloride  in  certain  localities,  as  at  Stass- 
furt,  Germany,  and  also  in  solution  in  small  proportion  in  Sea- Water, 
and  in  the  waters  of  certain  mineral  springs;  in  the  form  of  Nitrate  in 
\arious  soils,  and  in  other  combinations  in  most  soils;  and  in  the 
tissues  of  plants. 

Potassium. — K. — From  Kalium,  the  older  name  for  the  element. 
Potassium  is  developed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Pot-ash,  the  residue  in 
a  pot  in  which  a  solution  of  wood-ash  had  been  evaporated. 

It  is  obtained  in  the  metallic  form  by  heating  to  a  white  heat  a 
mixture  of  Charcoal  and  Potassium  Carbonate,  and  rapidly  cooling 
the  vapor  of  potassium  as  it  escapes  from  the  crucible,  by  conducting  it 
into  a  properly  constructed  receiver  without  access  of  air.  The  fol- 
lowing equation  represents  the  reaction  which  takes  place: 
K,C03  !-2C:  K,  -|  -3CO. 

It  may  also  be  prepared  on  a  small  scale  by  the  electrolysis  of 
Potassium  Cyanide. 

Properties. — A  silver}-  white  metal,  sp.  gr.  0.875,  brittle,  and  possessing  a 
crystalline  fracture  at  o°C.,  but  of  a  waxy  consistency,  and  easily  cut  at  i5°C.. 
melting  at  C>2.50C.,  oxiclix.es  readily  on  exposure  to  damp  air,  and  forms  the 
hydrate  with  such  rapidity  when  thrown  upon  water,  that  the  hydrogen  set  free 
from  the  latter  is  inflamed,  and  is  colored  a  characteristic  violet  by  the  volatil- 
ized potassium  oxide,  which  is  produced.  It  must  be  preserved  under  Benzin 
or  some  other  liquid  that  does  not  contain  oxygen. 

I'ses. — Reing  a  powerful  reducing  agent,  it  has  some  important  uses  in  the 
chemical  laboratory,  but  has  no  pharmaceutical  importance.  Several  of  its 
compounds,  however,  are  of  great  importance. 

NATURAL  POTASSIUM  COMPOUNDS. 

The  natural  Potassium  Compounds  are  the  Chloride,  Sulphate, 
Nitrate  and  llitartrate. 

Potassium  S////>/iat<: — K.._,SO4.  — -  Potassii  Sulphas,  I".  S. — Occurs 
native  in  Sea-Water:  in  certain  mineral  waters,  mixed  with  Common 
Salt,  in  some  salt  beds,  and  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  certain 
manufactures. 

In  colorless,  transparent,  six-sided  rhombic  crystals.  It  does  not  change 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  has  a  cooling,  saline  taste,  and  is  neutral  to  test 


POTASSIUM   COMPOUNDS.  143 

paper.     Its  sp.   gr.   is  2.648,  it  is  soluble  in  4  parts  of  water  at   I5°C.  much 
more  freely  soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

Uses. — In  medicine,  rarely,  as  a  purgative.  Owing  to  the  hardness  of  the 
crystal,  this  salt  was  formerly  used  in  the  preparation  of  Dover's  Powder  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  comminution  of  the  active  ingredients;  it  was  re- 
placed by  sugar  of  milk  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80. 

Potassium  Sulphite  —  K.2SO3  f- 3H2O .  —  Potassii  Sulphis.  —  Made 
by  passing  a  current  of  Sulphurous  Acid  gas  into  a  solution  of  Potas- 
sium Carbonate.  Not  official. 

In  oblique  rhombic  octahedral  crystals.  Odor  slight,  taste  bitter,  saline  and 
sulphurous,  deliquescent,  freely  soluble  in  water,  but  slightly  soluble  in 
alcohol.  On  heating,  decomposition  takes  place,  water  and  sulphurous  acid 
being  given  off. 

Cses. — In  medicine  as  an  anti-fermentative  and  anti-putrefactive. 

Potassium  Nitrate. — KNOS — Potassii  Nitras,  U.  S. — Commonly 
called  Saltpetre.  Usually  obtained  as  a  product  of  fermentation  that 
takes  place  in  soils,  rich  in  certain  forms  of  organic  matter.  It  is 
common  in  certain  hot  countries,  as  India,  Egypt,  Persia,  some  portions 
of  South  America,  etc.,  where  it  occurs  as  an  efflorescence  in  the 
soil.  This  is  collected  and  purified  by  repeated  solution  and  re- 
crystalli/.ation. 

Six-sided,  usually  striated,  rhombic  prisms,  that  are  colorless,  odorless, 
with  a  cooling  saline  taste,  containing  water  enclosed  mechanically  in  the  in- 
terstices; or  a  crystalline  powder.  It  is  soluble  in  j.8  parts  water,  in  0.4  boil- 
ing water  and  sparingly  in  alcohol. 

At  a  high  temperature  saltpetre  evolves  oxygen  and  is  gradually  changed  to 
the  nitrite. 

f'ses. — As  a  diluent  in  fused  Silver  Nitrate,  as  an  ingredient  in  medicated 
vapors  for  asthma  etc.,  as  a  diuretic,  and  in  large  doses  as  a  cardiac  and 
nervous  sedative.  In  the  arts  for  Gunpowder,  and  in  domestic  practice  for  cur- 
ing meat. 

Off.  Prep. — Charta  Potassii  Nitratis,  made  by  saturating  paper  in 
a  solution  of  the  salt  and  drying  it. 

Potassium  Bitartrate. — KHC4H4OG. —  Potassii  Bitartras,U.  S. — 
Cream  of  Tartar.  Prepared  from  Argols,  orargol,  a  crystalline  deposit 
formed  in  grape-juice  during  the  vinous  fermentation.  It  consists  of 
Cream  of  Tartar  associated  with  Calcium  Tartrate  and  other  impuri- 
ties. The  crude  product  is  boiled  with  water,  through  which  the  impu- 
rities are  largely  removed,  and  then  purified  by  repeated  crystallization. 

Colorless  or  nearly  colorless  rhombic  crystals,  or  a  white,  gritty  powder, 
odorless,  pleasantly  acid  to  the  taste,  and  having  an  acid  reaction.  It  is  soluble 
in  200  parts  of  water,  in  16  parts  boiling  water,  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol.  It 
blackens  when  strongly  heated,  and  gives  out  the  odor  of  burnt  sugar. 


144  POTASSIUM    COMPOUNDS. 

As  the  salt  is  very  liable  to  adulteration,  the  pharmacopoeial  tests  for  purity 
should  always  be  applied  to  samples  purchased  for  medicinal  use. 

Uses. — As  the  source  of  Tartaric  Acid,  and  in  thte  preparation  of  Antimony 
and  Potassium  Tartrate,  Iron  c'ind  Potassium  Tartrate,  Sodium  and  Potassium 
Tartrate,  and  Potassium  Tartrate. 

In  medicine  as  a  laxative,  refrigerant,  and  diuretic.  Mixed  with  some  dry 
powder,  such  as  starch,  in  conjunction  with  Sodium  Bicarbonate,  it  is  largely 
used  as  baking  powder.  The  carbonic  acid,  by  exposure  to  moisture  and  heat, 
is  liberated  in  the  process  of  baking,  thus  rendering  the  bread  light  and  porous. 

Off.    Prep.  —  In    Pulvis   Jalapoe    Compositus,    P>each's    Diaphoretic 

Powder,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  many  unofficial  mixtures.     Popularly 

as  a  blood  purifier  mixed  with  flowers  of  sulphur. 
From  Potassium  Bitartrate  the  following  are  made: 
Potassium    Tartrate.  —  (K2C4H4Oti)2-{-H2O.  —  Potassii    Tartras. — 

Made  by  neutralizing  a  solution  of  Cream  of  Tartar  with   Potassium 

Carbonate.      Not  official. 

Monoclinic,  transparent,  somewhat  deliquescent  crystals,  with  a  saline, 
somewhat  bitter  taste,  and  neutral  to  test  paper.  When  heated,  water  is  given 
off,  and  at  a  higher  temperature  the  mass  becomes  charred.  Very  soluble  in 
water. 

Uses. — In  medicine  chiefly  as  an  aperient,  and  in  pharmacy  as  a  test  for 
glucose  in  Fehling's  solution. 

Potassium  and  Sodium  Tar/raft'.  —  KXaC4H4O6-j-4H.,O. — Potassii  et 
Sodii  Tartras,  l~.  S. — This  is  commonly  called  Rochelle  Salt,  and  is 
prepared  by  saturating  a  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate  with  Potassi'im 
Bitartrate,  evaporating  the  solution  and  crystallizing. 

In  the  form  of  a  white  powder,  or  in  transparent  rhombic  crystals,  slightly 
efflorescent  in  dry  air,  odorless,  and  with  a  bitterish  mildly  saline  taste.  Soluble 
in  1.4  parts  of  water  at  i5°C,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Melts  in  its 
water  of  crystallization  at  about  75°C. ;  at  a  more  elevated  temperature  it  dries 
and  then  chars. 

Uses. — In  medicine  as  a  laxative. 

Off.  Prep. — Pulvis  Effervescens  Compositus. 


POTASSIUM  CARBONATE  AND  OTHKR  COMPOUNDS. 

From  Potassium  Sulphate  the  Carbonate  is  made,  and  from  this  in 
turn  all  the  other  Potassium  compounds. 

Potassium  Carbonate. — K/'O., — Potassii  Carbonas.  U.  S. — Sails 
of  Tartar. 

Obtained  by  leaching  \Vood-Ashes  and  evaporating  the  lye  thus 
obtained  and  purifying  it;  also  from  Potassium  Sulphate  which  occurs 
in  sea-water,  and  as  mineral  in  some  localities. 

White  granular  powder,  or  in  white  solid  masses,  odorless,  with  a  somewhat 
raustic  and  alkaline  taste,  and  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  highly  deliquescent,  and 
must  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles.  Soluble  in  one  part  of  w-iter.  but  i-, 
insoluble  in  alcohol. 

f'scs. — For  the  general  purposes  of  an  alkali,  in  Sulphurated  J'otassa,  an  1 
many  unofficial  preparations.  In  medicine  it  is  used  externally  on  account  of 
its  irritant  or  caustic  effect,  and  internally  as  an  antacid  and  diuretic.  In  larg>; 
doses  an  irritant  caustic,  the  proper  antidote  being  dilute  acids,  such  as  vine- 
gar. 

Potassium  Bicarbonate.  —  K.HCO3.—  Potassii  15i<  arbonas.  U.  S. — 
Obtained  from  the  carbonate  by  saturating  a  solution  of  the  latter  with 
Carbon-Dioxide,  filtering,  evaporating,  and  allowing  the  liijuid  to 
crystallize. 

Transparent,  colorless,  monoclinic  prisms,  permanent  in  dry  air  without 
odor,  taste  saline  and  somewhat  alkaline.  It  is  soluble  in  32  parts  water,  in 
2  parts  at  50° C. ;  in  solutions  above  this  temperature,  Carbon  Dioxide,  is  given 
off.  Almost  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Heated  to  about  2oo°C.,  it  gives  oft  water  an-! 
carbon  dioxide,  and  is  converted  into  the  carbonate  An  impure  variety,  in  tlv- 
form  of  a  white  powder,  was  formerly  sold  under  the  name  of  Saleratus 

cV<\9. — In  many  saline  draughts,  when  of  acid  reaction,  to  furnish  Carbonic 
Acid  by  decomposition.  For  that  purpose  it  is  used  in  the  official  Solution  ot 
Magnesium  Citrate. 

Caustic  Potassa. —  KHO.  —  Potassa.  U.  S.  —  Potassium  Hydroxide. 
Caustic  Potash.  Usually  obtained  by  decomposing  a  solution  ot 
Potassium  Carbonate  by  means  of  freshly  slaked  Lime.  It  is  com- 
monly sold  in  sticks  or  pencils,  which  are  hard,  white,  very  delique- 
cent,  very  caustic  to  the  taste,  and  strongly  alkaline  in  their  reaction. 
At  i5°C.  it  is  soluble  in  one-half  its  weight  of  water,  and  in  twice  it» 
weight  of  alcohol. 

PREPARATIONS    HI     POTASSA. 

Liquor  Potassa?,  containing  Potassa  56  parts,  and  Distilled  Wit  -r 
944  parts. 

Potassa  cum  Calce,  made  by  rubbing  together  equal  parts  i>y  weigiu 
of  Potassa  and  Lime.  "  Potassa  by  alcohol,"  a  pure  unofficial  form. 


i^  PREPARATIONS    OF    POTASSA 

is  prepared  by  precipitating  the  impurities  from  a  solution  of  the  com- 
mercial Potassa  with  Alcohol. 

Sulphurated  Potassa.  —  Potassa  Sulplmrata,  U.  S.  —  "Liver  of  Sul- 
phur." -Not  a  definite  compound,  but  a  mixture  of  several,  produced 
by  gradually  heating  a  mixture  of  Sublimed  Sulphur,  i  part,  and 
Potassium  Carbonate,  2  parts,  until  effervescence  ceases,  and  cooling 
the  fused  mass  by  pouring  it  out  on  a  marble  slab. 

It  is,  when  fresh,  composed  chiefly  of  potassium  trisulphide  and  potassium 
hyposulphite,  but  usually  contains  also  a  small  percentage  of  unchanged  potas- 
sium carbonate  It  rapidly  undergoes  change,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and 
must  be  kept  in  tight-fitting,  glass-stoppered  bottles. 

Liver-colored  masses,  changing  to  greenish  yellow  or  brownish-yellow  on 
exposure;  odor  faint,  disagreeable,  resembling  sulphureted  hydrogen;  taste 
bitter,  alkaline  and  repulsive. 

Uses.- — In  the  preparation  of  Lotions,  Ointments,  etc.,  for  diseases  of  the  skin 
or  mucou?  surfaces.  Now  seldom  used  internally. 

COMPOUNDS  OF  POTASSIUM. 

Potassium  Chlorate.-  -KC1O3 — Potassii  Chloras,  U.  S. — Usually 
obtained  by  the  action  of  Chlorine  on  a  solution  of  Caustic  Potash,  or 
on  a  moistened  mixture  of  Potassium  Carbonate  and  Caustic  Lime. 
After  saturation  with  Chlorine  the  mixture  is  diluted  with  Water  and 
then  evaporated  until  crystals  begin  to  form. 

Colorless  monoclinic  prisms  or  plates,  possessing  a  pearly  lustre,  neutral  to 
test  paper,  odorless,  and  with  a  cooling,  saline  taste.  Soluble  in  16.5  parts  of 
water,  in  i  7  parts  of  boiling  water,  very  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol  at  any 
temperature.  When  heated  the  salt  first  fuses,  then  gives  off  its  oxygen,  leav- 
ing a  residue  of  potassium  chloride. 

(Jses.  —  As  a  source  of  oxygen;  in  the  manufacture  of  Potassium  Permanga- 
nate, and  in  medicine  chiefly  as  a  remedy  for  ulcers  in  the  mouth  and  throat. 

Off.  Prep. — Trochisci  I'otassii  Chloratis;  and  an  unofficial  solution 
containing  2  Gin.  (30  grains)  of  the  salt  in  33  c.c.  (fluid  ounce)  for 
dispensing  purposes. 

Caution:  Potassium  chlorate  should  be  kept  in  glass-stoppered  bottles,  and 
%rtat  caution  should  be  observed  in  handling  the  salt,  as  dangerous  explosions  are 
liable  to  occur  when  it  is  mixed  with  organic  matter  (cork,  tannic  acid,  sugar, 
stc.)  or  with  sulphur,  antimony  sulphide,  phosphorus,  or  other  easily  oxidizable 
substances,  and  either  heated  directly,  or  subjected  to  trituration  or  concussion. 

Potassium    Bromide.  —  KBr. — Potassii     Bromidum,    U.    S.  —  Ob- 
tained by  the  reaction  of  Potassium  Carbonate  upon  a  solution  of  Fer- 
rous Bromide,  according  to  the  following  equation: 
FeBra+ K.2CO:J  -  2  KBr  -f  FeCOa. 

Colorless,  cubical  crystals,  permanent  in  dry  air,  odorless,  with  a 
saline  taste,  and  neutral  reaction.  Soluble  in  1.6  parts  of  water,  in 


COMPOUNDS   OF   POTASSIUM  ,47 

less  than  its  weight  of  boiling  water,  and  in  200  parts  of  alcohol.     At 
a  dull  red  heat  it  fuses,  without  loss  of  weight. 

Ust-s. — As  a  sedative,  anaesthetic,  and  hypnotic.  In  various  unofficial  prepa- 
rations: Elixir  containing  10  grains  to  the  fluid  dram,  and  in  a  Compound 
Mixture  of  Po-  lssiucii  Bromide  and  Chloral,  containing  15  grains  of  each  in  one 
fluid  dram,  ai  i  js  grain  each,  extract  Cannabis  Indica  and  extract.  I  lyoscya- 
mus.  (See  Nat.  Form.) 

Potassium  Iodide. — K.I. —  1'otassii  lodidum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by 
heating  Iodine  in  a  solution  of  Potassa,  concentrating  by  evaporating 
and  treating  with  charcoal,  drying  and  heating  to  redness,  dissolving 
in  Distilled  Water,  and  crystalli/ing.  The  reactions  that  take  place 
are  represented  as  follows: 

(i)     6KOII-j-3I2     5KI  ;  K103-|  3H,0. 

Potassium  lodate,  KIO;J.  is  poisonous,  and  is  heated  with  charcoal, 
when  it  becomes  reduced  to  iodide: 

(2)      2KIO,-j-3C2    -2KI-J-6CO. 

Colorless,  transparent  or  translucent,  cubical  crystals,  somewhat 
deliquescent,  with  a  faint,  peculiar  odor,  a  saline  taste,  and  neutral 
reaction.  Soluble  in  0.75  parts  of  water,  in  one-half  its  weight  of 
boiling  water,  and  in  i<S  parts  of  alcohol. 

Uses. — As  a  reagent  in  the  laboratory,  and  in  medicine  as  a  resolvent,  being 
the  most  valuable  of  all  the  compounds  of  iodine.  It  is  usually  administered  in 
Compound  Syrup  of  Sarsaparilla,  more  especially  to  mask  its  disagreeable  taste. 
It  is  also  used  to  make  iodine  soluble  in  water  or  watery  mixtures,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing official  preparations: 

Liquor  lodi  Compositns:  Iodine,  5  Cm.;  Potassium  Iodide,  10  Gin.;  Water, 
85  Gm. 

Ungnentinii  lodi:  Iodine,  4  parts;  Potassium  Iodide,  i  pnrt;  Water,  2  parts; 
Benzoinated  Lard,  93  parts. 

Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  Potassii  iodidi:  Potassium  Iodide,  12  parts: 
Sodium  Hyposulphite,  i  part;  boiling  Water,  10  parts:  I5enx.  Lard. 
7  7  parts. 

Potassium  Hypophosphitc. — KPILO., —  Potassii  Hypophosphis,  I  . 
S.  —  Obtained  by  boiling  a  solution  of  Potassa  with  Phosphorus. 

Granular  powdjr  or  white  confused  crystalline  masses,  neutral  to  test  paper, 
odorless,  with  a  sharp  saline  taste,  very  deliquescent,  soluble  in  o.G  parts  of 
water,  and  in  7.3  parts  of  alcohol. 

( 'st-t. — In  the  preparation  of  Syrup  of  Elypophosphites  and  various  unofficial 
preparations;  Elixirs  and  Cod-Liver  <  >il  Emulsions. 

Potassium  Arst'iiitc,  solution.  —  Liquor  Potassii  Arse-nitis.  I  .  S. — 
Fowler's  Solution. 

Made  by  boiling  i  Gm.  of  Arsenous  Acid  and  2  of  Potassium  Bicarbonate,  IH 
IQC.C.  of  Water,  until  solution  is  complete,  and  then  adding  Compound  Tinc- 
ture of  Lavender  3  c.c.,  and  Water  enough  t<>  measure  100  c.c. 


I48  POTASSIUM   COMPOUNDS. 

Potassium  Bichromate.  —  KaCr,()7.  —  Potassii  Bichromas,  U.  S. — Ob- 
tained from  Chrome-ironstone,  l''e()C'r.,().,.  by  roasting  it,  heating  it 
strong! v  with  Potassium  Carbonate  and  Lime,  leaching  out  the  Potas- 
sium Chromate  thus  formed,  and  converting  it  into  the  I'ichromate  by 
treating  the  solution  with  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Garnet  rod  tables  or  prisms,  odorless,  -with  an  unpleasant,  bitter,  metallic 
taste,  and  an  acid  reaction.  Soluble  in  10  parts  of  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
fusible  below  red  heat  into  a  transparent,  red  liquid,  and  decomposes  at  a  white 
heat  into  oxvgen,  normal  chromate,  and  chromic  oxide. 

fst-s. — As  a  test  in  pharmaceutical  chemistry  (see  the  official  Test  Liquid), 
in  the  preparation  of  Chromic  and  Valerianic  Acids.  Also  in  dyeing,  and  with 
Sulphuric  Acid  i'or  coloring  liquids  in  "show  bottles."  Internally  in  large 
doses  it  is  poisonous,  chalk,  magnesia  or  soap  being  the  proper  antidotes. 

j\~ornial  PvJiissiittii  Cliroinali',  or  yellow  chromate  of  potash,  K.,CrO,>.  This 
occurs  in  six-sided,  lemon-yellow  crystals,  and  is  usually  prepared  by  adding 
Potassium  Carbonate  to  a  solution  of  the  Bichromate  so  long  as  effervescence  is 
produced. 

Ust's. — Chiefly  for  the  preparation  of  test  solution  in  pharmaceutical  chem- 
istry. 

Potassium  Permanganate. — KMnOi. — Potassii  Permanganas,  U.  S. 
- — Usually  obtained  by  the  reaction  of  Potassa  and  Potassium  Chlor- 
ate on  Manganese  Dioxide. 

Dark  purple,  or  nearly  black,  rhombic  prisms,  with  a  metallic  luster,  neutral 
to  test  paper;  permanent  in  the  air,  odorless,  sweetish  and  afterward  disagreea- 
ble to  the  taste.  Soluble  in  16  parts  of  water,  forming  a  deep  purple  colored 
solution  in  j  parts  boiling  water.  In  contact  with  alcohol  it  is  decomposed. 

I  'st-s.-  Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  readilv  parts  with  oxygen  in  contact  with 
jrganic  matters,  it  is  used  as  a  Disinfectant,  in  the  preparation  of  washes  for 
Joul  ulcers,  etc.,  and  is  also  given  internally  in  diphtheria,  sore  throat,  etc.  It 
should  be  exhibited  only  with  substances  free  from  organic  matter,  lest  it  be  re- 
duced, and  for  this  reason,  when  prescribed  in  the  pill  form,  the  excipient 
should  be  petrolatum  and  kaoline  or  similar  non-oxidizable  substances. 

Ciiit/inii.  Potassium  Permanganate  should  be  kept  in  glass-stoppered  bot- 
tles protected  from  light  and  should  not  be  brought  in  contact  with  organic  or 
readily  oxidizable  substances.  Mixed  with  glycerin  or  similar  substances,  it 
may  cause  explosion. 


ORGANIC  COMPOUNDS  OF  POTASSIUM. 

The  following  arc  compounds  of  organic  radical: 

Potassium  Acetate. — KC^HjOj. — Potassii  Acetas,  U.  S. — Made  by 
saturating  a  solution  of  Potassium  Carbonate  with  Acetic  Acid,  and 
evaporating  fhe  solution  until  crystals  are  formed. 

A  deliquesc-nt,  crystalline  or  granular  white  salt,  without  odor,  and  having  a 
mildly  pungent  and  saline  taste.  Soluble  in  0.36  parts  of  water  and  1.9  parts 
of  alcohol,  melts  to  an  oily  liquid  at  a  temperature  of  about  2go°C.,  and  at  a 
higher  temperature  is  decomposed,  evolving  acetic  acid,  acetone  and  other 
volatile  products,  and  leaves  potassium  carbonate  and  charcoal.  It  must  l>e 
kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles. 

fscs. — In  medicine  as  a  diuretic  and  diaphoretic. 

Potassium    Citrate.  —  K.C  FLO,  4-  FLO. — Potassii  Citras,  U.   S. — 

3507)  * 

Obtained  by  neutralization  of  a  solution  of  Citric  Acid  with  Potassium 
Bicarbonate,  and  evaporating  the  solution  until  a  granular  salt  re- 
mains. 

A  white,  deliquescent  powder  or  transparent  prismatic  crystals  with  cooling, 
faintly  alkaline  taste  and  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  reaction.  Soluble  in  0.6 
parts  of  water,  sparingly  soluble  in  alconol  loses  its  water  of  crystallization  at 
2oo°C.,  and  chars. 

( 'ses . — As  an  arterial  sedative  and  a  diaphoretic 

Off.  Prep. — Liquor  Potassii  Citratis;  a  six-per-cent  solution  of 
Citric  Acid  saturated  with  Potas°'um  Bicarbonate. 

The  "Neutral  Mixture,"  forme ..'v  official,  was  Lemon-juice  neu- 
tralized with  Potassium  Bicarbonate. 

Potassii  Citras  Effervescent,  U.  S.  —  A  mixture  of  63  Gin.  of  Citric 
Acid,  90  Gm.  Potassium  Bicarbonate  and  Sugar  to  make  200  Gm. 

The  ingredients  are  powdered  separately,  then  mixed  thoroughly  in  a  warm 
mortar.  The  resulting  paste  is  dried  rapidly  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding 
i2o°C.  and  reduced  to  a  granular  powder.  The  product  must  be  kept  in  well- 
stoppered  bottles.  It  is  used  to  furnish  effervescing  draughts. 

Potassium  Ferrocyanide.  — K(Fei ,'CN)  ~-  3H2O. — Potassii  Ferro- 
ryanidum,  U.  S.  —  From  this,  in  the  long  run,  nearly  all  the  Cyano- 
gen compounds  are  prepared.  It  is  obtained  by  heating  crude  Potash 
in  covered  cast-iron  pots,  into  which  is  thrown  a  mixture  of  Iron 
filings  and  Carbonaceous  matters,  such  as  horn,  feathers,  dried  blood. 
etc.  The  fused  mass  is  lixiviated,  and  the  clear  liquid  evaporated 
and  crystallized. 

Large,  light-yellow,  translucent  or  nearly  transparent,  quadratic  pyramidal 
crystals.  Soluble  in  4  parts  of  water,  in  2  parts  boiling  water,  insoluble  in 
alcohol.  Sp.  gr.  1.83.  Slightly  deliquescent,  heated  to  60°  begins  to  part  with 
its  water  of  crystallization,  and  at  ion  it  is  completely  siven  off,  a  white  powder 
remaining.  It  is  not  poisonous. 


15°  ORGANIC    COMPOUNDS    OF    POTASSIUM. 

Uses. — Used  in  the  preparation  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid,  the  Cyanides,  etc.,  and 
as  a  test  for  iron,  zinc  and  copper. 

Potassium  Cyanide. — KC'N. — Potassii  Cyanidum,  U.  S. — Obtained 
by  fusing  together  proper  proportions  of  dried  Potassium  Ferro- 
cyanide  and  Potassium  Carbonate,  dissolving  out  the  Potassium  Cyan- 
ide formed  and  crystallizing  it. 

Amorphous,  or  finely  crystalline,  white  masses,  deliquescent  in  moist  air, 
with  a  penetrating  odor  resembling  that  of  bitter  almonds,  and  a  sharp  alkaline 
taste  and  reaction.  Its  fumes  are  poisonous  when  inhaled,  and  when  taken  in- 
ternally the  salt  acts  as  a  violent  poison.  It  must  be  preserved  in  glass-stop- 
pered bottles. 

Uses. — Its  medicinal  properties  and  uses  are  similar  to  those  of  Hydrocyanic 
Acid,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  used  (in  the  right  proportion)  because  of  being 
more  stable.  The  commercial  article  is  largely  used  in  the  arts  for  mining, 
plating,  etc.,  but  is  usually  too  impure  for  med'cina!  purposes. 


Sodium. 


Sodium  resembles  Potassium,  and  forms  a  similar  series  of  com. 
ounds. 

Sources.  —  Sodium  does  not  occur  native,  but  its  compounds  are 
abundant  and  widely  distributed.  Common  Salt,  Chili  Saltpetre, 
Sodium  Carbonate  and  Sodium  Sulphate  forming  considerable  deposits 
in  some  localities.  The  Silicates  and  Fluorides  of  Sodium  are  also 
common  minerals. 

Sodium. — Na. — The  symbol  is  derived  from  Natrium,  the  N'itrum  of 
the  ancients. 

Metallic  sodium  is  obtained  by  a  process  analogous  to  that  used  for 
obtaining  potassium,  but  it  is  obtained  with  less  difficulty  than  the 
"atter  metal. 

A  white  metal  with  a  silvery  luster,  sp.  gr.  0.973,  has  the  consistency  of  wax 
at  ordinary  temperature;  when  thrown  on  water  forms  the  hydrate  and  melts  by 
the  heat  produced  by  its  union  with  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  but  the  freed 
hydrogen  of  the  latter  is  not  inflamed  unless  the  melted  sodium  globule  be  res- 
trained from  moving  about;  when  it  burns,  and  the  flame  has  a  deep  yellow 
color.  It  readily  oxidizes  in  contact  with  moist  air. 

Cst-s. — The  metal  itself  is  not  used  in  pharmacy,  but  its  compounds  are  not 
less  important  than  those  of  potassium 

COMPOUNDS  OF  SODIUM. 

The  three  most  common  natural  Compounds  of  Sodium  are  the 
Chloride,  the  Sulphate  and  the  Nitrate. 

Sodium  Chloride. — NaCl  —  Sodii  Chloridum,  U.  S.  —  This  is  com- 
mon "salt,"  too  familiar  to  require  description.  It  is  found  native  as 
Rock  Salt  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  occurs  in  the  sea,  as  well  as 
in  many  lakes,  and  in  plants  and  animals. 

ft  is  chiefly  obtained  in  the  States  of  New  York,  Michigan,  West 
Virginia  and  Kansas  from  Salt-wells  in  the  Earth,  the  brine  being 
pumped  to  the  surface  and  the  Salt  obtained  by  evaporation  in 
vacuum  apparatus. 

Uses. — In  pharmacy  in  the  preparation  of  Chlorine  gas,  Hydrochloric  Acid, 
Calomel,  etc.,  and  somewhat  also  in  medicine,  in  washes  and  as  a  haemostatic, 
etc. 

Sodium  Sulphate. — Na2SO4-f-ioH2O. — Sodii  Sulphas,  U.  S.— Com- 
monly called  Glauber's  Salt.  Frequently  found  native,  and  obtained 
as  a  by-product  in  many  chemical  processes. 


152  SODIUM 

Large,  transparent,  colorless,  monoclinic  prisms;  which  are  odorless,  with  a 
cooling,  saline,  and  a  decidedly  bitter  taste.  Efflorescent  and  crumbling  to  a 
white  powder  on  exposure  to  dry  air,  neutral  to  test  paper,  soluble  in  2.8  parts 
of  water  and  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

[•'ses. — As  a  purgative;  chiefly  in  veterinary  practice. 

Sodium  Nitrate. — NaNo3. — Sodii  Nitras,  U.  S. — Occurs  native  in 
extensive  beds  in  Chili  and  Peru,  and  the  crude  article  is  called  Chili 
Saltpetre. 

Transparent,  colorless,  deliquescent,  rhombohedral  crystals.  Neutral  to 
test  paper,  inodorous,  taste  cooling,  saline  and  bitterish.  Soluble  in  1.3  parts 
of  water  and  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Melts  at  3i2°C.,  and  at  higher  tem- 
peratures gives  off  oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  the  nitrite. 

Uses. — Principal  source  of  Nitric  Acid,  also  used  in  preparing  Sodium 
Arsenate.  In  medicine,  chiefly  as  a  mild  purgative. 

In  the  arts  as  a  substitute  for  Potassium  Nitrate  or  the  ordinary  East  India 
Saltpetre. 

So.Uum  Nitrite. — NaNo2. — Sodii  Nitris,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  heat- 
ing Sodium  Nitrate  with  some  organic  substance,  such  as  Starch,  or  by 
fusing  it  with  lead,  forming  Lead  Oxide  and  Sodium  Nitrite. 

White  opaque  masses  or  in  the  form  of  pencils,  deliquescent  and  changed  to 
the  nitrate  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

Soluble  in  1.5  parts  of  water,  very  soluble  in  boiling  water,  slightly  soluble  in 
alcohol. 

Uses. — To  yield  Nitric  Oxide  in  the  preparation  of  Spirit  Nitrous  Ether; 
sometimes  used  internally. 

Sodium  Carbonate.  —  Na2CO3-r  ioH./).-—  Sodii  Carbonas,  U.  S. — 
••Sal  Soda;"  exists  in  many  mineral  waters,  the  waters  of  certain 
lakes  in  hot  and  dry  countries,  and  also  in  plants 

It  is  manufactured  at  Xatrona,  Pa.,  from  the  mineral  Cryolite  ob- 
tained from  Cireenland.  which  is  a  double  Fluoride  of  Sodium  and 
Aluminum,  by  boiling  it  with  caustic  Lime. 

The  f.ehlauc  process  consists  in  heating  the  Chloride  with  Lime 
and  Coal  and  obtaining  the  carbonate  by  lixiviation  in  an  impure 
form  known  ;H  -Soda  Ash."  From  this  the  pure  salt  is  obtained  by 
crystallization. 

It  is  also  obtained  by  the  ammonia  process  of  Solvay,  which  consists 
in  treating  Sodium  Chloride  with  Ammonia  gas  and  Carbon  Dioxide. 
Ammonium  Chloride  and  Sodium  Bicarbonate  are  formed,  the  latter 
precipitating  because  of  its  comparative  insolubility.  The  Carbonate 
is  easily  obtained  by  heating  the  Bicarbonate,  dissolving  and  crystalli/- 
ing  the  residue. 

Large,  colorless,  oblique  rhombic  crystals,  or  in  irregular  lumps,  with  a 
strongly  alkaline  reaction,  and  with  an  alkaline  taste.  On  exposure  to  the  air 


COMPOUNDS.  155 

it  effloresces  and  falls  to  a  white  powder.      Insoluble  in  alcohol,  soluble  in    1.6 
parts  of  water. 

f'sfs. — To  prepare  various  other  sodium  compounds;  only  the  whole  crystals 
should  be  used  It  is  purified  by  re-crystallization,  or  granulated  for  medicinal 
use. 

Off.  J'rep. — Sodii  Carlumas  Kxsiccatus,  made  by  exposing  the  crys- 
tals to  the  air,  and  then  to  a  temperature  of  45°C'.,  until  a  white 
ixnvder  is  formed,  which  represents  one-half  the  original  weight  of  the 
Salt. 

Sodium  Bicarbonate.  NaH('();!.  — Sodii  Bicarbonas,  ''Baking 
Soda."- — Made  from  the  Carbonate  by  exposing  it  to  Carbon  Dioxide. 

White  powder,  permanent  in  air,  odorless,  cooling,  saline  taste,  and  alkaline 
reaction.  Soluble  in  11.3  parts  of  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol.  The  aqueous 
solution  if  heated  gives  up  a  part  of  its  carbon  dioxide  and  becomes  a  solution 
of  the  carbonate 

Uses. — For  the  preparation  of  various  other  sodium  compounds,  in  medicine 
as  an  antacid  to  furnish  Carbonic  Acid  to  draughts  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
Baking-Powder 

Off.  Prep. — Mistura  Rhei  et  Soda.':  1'ulv.  Effervescences comp.; 
Trochisci  Sodii  Bicarbonatis. 

Sodii  Bicarbonas  Venalis  is  common,  impure  commercial  sodium  bicarbon- 
ate, formerly  official 

Soda.  —  NaHO. — Soda.  U.  S. .  -'Caustic  Soda."-— The  process  of 
manufacture  is  similar  to  that  of  potassa.  consisting  in  decomposing 
a  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate  with  Lime.  The  insoluble  Calcium 
Carbonate  formed  precipitates,  and  the  Sodium  Hydrate  is  obtained 
upon  evaporation  of  the  solution. 

Caustic  soda  closely  resembles  caustic  potassa  in  appearance  and  properties, 
and  is  usually  cast  in  pencils  in  the  same  way.  Soluble  in  1.7  parts  of  water, 
in  0.8  part  boiling  water  and  freely  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  does  not  produce  a 
precipitate  when  an  aqueous  solution  of  it  be  dropped  into  an  aqueous  solution 
of  tartaric  acid,  even  when  the  latter  remains  in  excess  It  is  thus  readilv  dis- 
tinguished from  caustic  potassa 

I  'srs. — Similar  to  potassa 

Off.  Prep.—  Liquor  Soda,',  made  either  from  Sodium  C.  arbonate  and 
Lime,  or  by  dissolving  56  dm.  Caustic  Soda  in  Water  to  make  1000 
dm.  similarly  to  the  process  for  Solution  of  Potassa. 

Sodium  Chlorate. — NaCK)s. — Sodii  Chlora<.  1.  S. — Obtained  by 
the  action  of  Chlorine  on  a  solution  of  Soda,  by  a  process  analogous 
to  that  for  the  corresponding  salt  of  potassium. 

Transparent,  tetrahedral  crystals,  permanent  in  the  air.  odorless,  cooling, 
saline  taste,  and  neutral  reaction  Yields  up  it>  nyvsfn  when  heated,  leaving 
common  salt  as  the  residue. 


154  SODIUM 

If  triturated  with  organic  or  other  easily  oxidizable  compounds,  explosion  is 
liable  to  occur  and  the  same  precautions  must  be  taken  in  storing,  handling  and 
mixing  it  as  are  directed  in  '.he  case  of  Potassium  Chlorate. 

L'si-s. — Similar  to  those  of  Potassium  Chlorate. 

Sodium  Bromide. — NaBr. — Sodii  Bromidum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by 
double  decomposition  between  Ferrous  Bromide  and  Sodium  Carbon- 
ate by  a  process  similar  to  that  employed  for  potassium  bromide. 

A  white  crystalline  powder  or  small  white  monoclinic  crystals,  permanent  in 
dry  air,  odorless,  having  a  saline  taste,  and  a  neutral  or  faintly  alkaline  reaction. 
Soluble  in  1.2  parts  of  water  and  in  13  parts  of  alcohol,  and  fusing  without  loss 
of  weight  at  a  dull-red  heat. 

Uses. — Same  as  those  of  Potassium  Bromide. 

Preparation. — An  unofficial  Elixir  containing  10  grains  to  the 
fluid-dram.  (See  Nat.  Form.) 

Sodium  Iodide. — Xal. — Sodii  lodidum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  the 
reaction  of  Iodine  on  Soda  and  the  conversion  of  the  lodate  into 
Iodide  by  the  same  method  employed  in  making  Potassium  Iodide. 

A  white  powder  or  small,  colorless  or  transparent,  monoclinic  crystals. 
Deliquescent,  inodorous,  and  having  a  bitterish  saline  taste.  Soluble  in  o.G 
part  of  water  and  3  parts  of  alcohol.  Melts  at  a  dull-red  heat,  and  at  a  higher 
temperature  volatilizes  with  partial  decomposition. 

Uses. — Same  as  that  of  Potassium  Iodide. 

Sodium  Snip/life. — Xa2SO3-f  7H2O. — Sodii  Sulphis,  U.  S. — Prepared 
by  neutralizing  a  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate  with  Sulphurous  Acid 
gas. 

Transparent,  colorless,  monoclinic  prisms,  odorless,  with  cooling,  saline  and 
somewhat  sulphurous  taste,  and  slightly  alkaline  reaction.  Effloresces  and 
gradually  changes  to  the  sulphate  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Soluble  in  4  parts 
of  water  and  but  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol.  When  heated  it  first  melts,  then 
loses  its  water  of  crystallization,  and  finally  is  decomposed,  giving  off  sul- 
phurous gas. 

Uses. — In  medicine  similar  to  those  of  potassium  sulphite  as  an  anti-fermenta- 
tive, etc. 

Sodium  Bisulphite. — NaHSO3. — Sodii  Bisulphis,  U.  S. — Made  by 
saturating  a  cold  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate  with  Sulphurous  Acid 
gas. 

A  white  granular  powder  or  opaqueprismatic  crystals,  odor  faintly  sulphurous, 
taste  disagreeable,  undergoing  decomposition  on  exposure  to  tne  air.  Soluble, 
in  4  parts  of  \.ater  and  i;i  72  parts  of  alcohol. 

Uses. — Similar  to  those  of  the  normal  sulphite. 

Sodium  Ifyposnlphitc. — Xa_>SjO3+5FI2O.  —  Sodii  Hyposulphis. 
U.  S.,  Sodium  Thiosulphate. — Usually  prepared  by  heating  together 
the  proper  proportions  of  Sulphur  and  dried  Sodium  Carbonate,  stir- 


COMPOUNDS.  155 

ling  vigorously  to  facilitate  oxidation,  and  then  converting  the 
normal  Sulphite  thus  formed  into  the  Hyposulphite  by  dissolving  it 
in  Water  and  boiling  it  with  Sulphur.  It  is  also  prepared  by  decom- 
position of  Calcium  Thiosulphate  with  Sodium  Carbonate,  or  Sul- 
phate. 

Monoclinic,  prismatic  or  tabular  crystals,  permanent  in  the  air,  transparent 
colorless,  inodorous,  and  with  a  sulphurous,  cooling  and  alkaline  taste.  Solu- 
ble in  0.65  part  of  water  and  insoluble  in  alcohol,  decomposed  iu  boiling  water. 
On  heating,  it  first  loses  its  water  of  crystallization  and  then  is  decomposed 
with  the  separation  of  sulphur. 

I  '.'<>.  —  In  medicine,  for  its  anti-putrefactive  rind  anti-fermentative  properties, 
chiefly.  In  the  arts,  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  in  photography  as  a  solvent 
for  bromide,  or  chloride,  of  silver. 

Preparations.  —  The  Volumetric  Test  Solution  and  in  the  so-culled 
Decolori/ed  Tincture  of  Iodine. 

Tincture  Iihii  Dccoliiratti.  —  Prepared  by  digesting  Iodine  and  Sodium  H\i<>- 
sulphite  in  water,  until  a  dark,  brownish-red  solution  results;  adding  Alcohol 
and  Stronger  Water  of  Ammonia  and  shaking  until  the  solution  has  become 
colorless.  (See  Nat.  Form.) 


Snlphocarl'ola/c.  —  XaSO3C6H4(OH)  -{-  2H..O.—  Sodii  Siil- 
phocarbolas,  U.  S.  (Sodium  Faraphenolsulphonate).  —  Obtained  by 
the  reaction  of  Barium  Sulphocarbolate  in  solution,  upon  Sodium 
Carbonate  or  Sodium  Sulphate. 

Rhombic  prismatic  crystals,  which  are  colorless  or  slightlv  pinkish,  trans- 
parent, permanent  in  the  air,  inodorous,  with  a  bitterish,  saline  taste.  Soluble 
in  4.8  parts  of  water  and  in  i  >,2  parts  of  alcohol.  When  heated  it  first  loses  its 
water  of  crystallization,  then  decomposes,  giving  off  the  odor  of  carbolic  acid, 
leaving  behing  a  charred  mass. 

CM-:.  —  It  has  much  the  same  medicinal  value  as  carbolic  acid,  but  is  much 
milder  in  its  action, 

Sodium  Phosphate.—  XaJIPO4-(-  1  2H:O.—  Sodii  Phosphas,  U.  S. 
—  Prepared  by  a  somewhat  complicated  process  from  Uone-ash,  Sul- 
phuric Acid  and  Sodium  Carbonate. 

Transparent,  colorless,  monoclinic,  prisms  of  large  si/.e,  efflorescent  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  inodorous  and  with  a  cooling,  saline  or  somewhat  alkaline 
taste,  and  a  slightly  alkaline  reaction.  Soluble  in  5.8  parts  of  water  and  in- 
-  Uible  in  alcohol.  When  heated  to  .40  C.  the  salt  fuses,  yielding  a  colorless 
li  jnid;  at  ioo°C.  it  loses  its  water  of  crystallization  and  at  joo°C.  it  is  con- 
verted into  the  pyrophosphate. 

Cses.  —  For  the  preparation  of  the  Sodium  Fyrophosphate,  of  Ir.>n  Phosphate 
etc.  In  medicine  mainlv  for  its  mildlv  purgative  effects. 

Sodium  ryrophosphatc.  —  ^.'&p.iO.  '-ioH,O.-  Sodii  Pyrophosphus, 
I.  S.  —  Prepared  by  heating  the  phosphate  to  ;,oo0C. 


15''.  ORGANIC    SODIUM    COMPOUNDS. 

Translucent,   colorless,    monoclinic  prisms,  permanent  in   the  air,  odor  and 
taste  like  the  phosphate,  soluble  in  j  2.  parts  of  water  and   insoluble  in  alcohol 
Cst-s.  —  Chiefly  for  the  preparation  of  Iron  Pyrophosphate. 

Sodium  Ifypopliosphit,-.  —  \aPH./)j-f-H,O.  —  Sodii  Hvpophosphis, 
U.  S.  —  Made  I»y  the  neutral  reaction  of  Sodium  Carbonate  and  Cal- 
cium Hypophosphite,  and  in  other  ways. 

A  white  powder,  or  colorless  rectangular  tabular  crystals,  very  deliquescent. 
odorless,  with  a  saline,  slightly  sweetish  taste,  soluble  in  i  part  of  water  and 
30  of  alcohol.  \Yhen  heated  strongly,  it  first  loses  its  water  of  crystallization, 
and  then  undergoes  decomposition. 

I'scs,  —  In  medicine,  in  treatment  of  phthisis,  bronchitis,  and  in  nervous 
debility. 

Off.  J^rcp.  —  Syrupus  Hypophosphitum;  Syrupus  Hypophosphitum 
cum  Ferro;  and  in  unofficial  Cod  liver  oil  Emulsions,  Elixirs,  etc. 
[See  Xat.  Form.] 

Sodium  Arscnatc.—  Xa^HAsOi-j-  yH.'O.  —  Sodii  Arsenas,  U.  S.  —  • 
Made  by  fusing  together  in  the  proper  proportions  Sodium  Carbon- 
ate and  Nitrate  with  Arsenous  Acid,  treating  the  fused  mass  with 
Water  and  crystallizing. 

Colorless,  transparent,  prismatic  crystals,  that  are  odorless,  and  have  a 
somewhat  alkaline  taste.  Somewhat  deliquescent,  soluble  in  4  parts  of  water, 
very  sparing!  v  in  alcohol.  It  is  poisonous. 

L'scs.  —  Similar  to  those  of  Fowler's  Solution. 

Off.  /';r/>.—  Liquor  Sodii  Arsenatis. 

Sodium  Acetate.  —  XaC,MaO,.  -  3ILO.—  Sodfi  Acetas,  U.  S.—  Made 
by  saturating  a  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate,  or  Bicarbonate,  wiri 
Acetic  Acid  and  obtaining  the  salt  by  evaporation  and  crystallization. 

Colorless,  transparent,  monoclinic  prisms  or  a  granular  crystalline  powder, 
odorless,  slightly  alkaline,  of  a  bitterish,  saline  taste  and  efflorescent  in  dry  air. 
Soluble  in  i.\  parts  of  water  and  in  30  parts  of  alcohol.  At  Go:C.  the  crystals. 
melt,  at  ].2j~C.  give  dt  tln-ir  \\ater  of  crystalli/ation,  and  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture the  mass  blackens  and  decomposes. 

L'scs.  —  Similar  to  those  of  Potassium  Acetate,  to  \\hich  it  is  sometimes  pre- 
ferred because  of  its  milder  action. 

*  by 

the 


Vv'hite.  semi-crv^tailine  or  amorpliiras  powder,  r.suaiiy  v.-ith  a  fain: 
ben/oin,  a  swi'et.  astringent  taste,  and  neutral  reactinn.  It  is  solubl 
parts  of  water  and  in  .|5  jinrts  of  alcul'i.  •!. 

/",.-(•.>•.  —  In  trout,  rli'  'i!T..'!ti-;n  and  rrnrd  disorders. 


LITHIUM.  157 

Sodium  Salieylafe. — 2XaC7II5O3. — Sodii  Salicylas,  V.  S.  —  Prepared 

by  the  reaction  of  Salirylir  Ac  id  on  Soda,  or  on  Sodium  Carbonate, 
in  Water. 

White,  tabular  crystals  of  small  si/.c,  or  in  the  form  of  a  white,  crystalline 
powder.  Inodorous,  saline,  and  somewhat  sweetish  taste,  and  slightly  acid 
reaction.  Dissolves  in  0.9  part  of  water  and  in  6  parts  of  alcohol.  Decom- 
posed by  heat,  giving  off  inflammable  vapors  and  leaving  a  charred  mass. 

i/.-r.i. — In  medicine,  mainly  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism.  Con\eniently 
prepared  extemporaneously  in  solution  from  salicylic  acid  and  sodium  bicar- 
bonate. 

Si'tiiutn  SiJHtuiiiiiiitt-. — Made  by  the  reaction  of  Scda  on  Santonin,  in  the 
presence  of  Water,  and  crystallizing  the  salt  was  official  in  the  II.  S.  Ph.,  1880, 

It  was  used  in  the  form  of  troches,  but  since  the  Sodium  Salt  of  Santonin  has 
proved  to  be  unreliable  as  a  worm-destroyer  the  substance  and  the  troches 
have  both  been  discarded. 

LITHIUM.— Li. 

Lithium  does  not  exist  free  in  nature,  and  its  compounds  are  much 
.ess  abundant  than  either  those  of  potassium  or  sodium.  It  occurs  in 
certain  minerals,  as  lepidolite,  spodumene,  petalite,  etc.;  in  certain 
mineral  waters,  in  minute  quantities  in  sea-waters  and  even  in  most 
fresh  waters.  It  occurs  also  in  many  plants. 

The  metal,  which  is  too  expensive  to  be  more  than  a  scientific  curiosity,  Is 
obtained  by  electrolysis  from  the  choloride.  It  boars  a  close  resemblance  to 
potassium  and  sodium  in  its  properties.  It  is  the  lightest  of  all  known  mstaJs. 
having  a  sp.  gr.  (if  onlv  0.5891. 

Characteristic  Reactions  of  Lithium  Salts; 

The  compounds  an-  not  volatilized  at  a  low  red  heat. 

They  impart  a  beautiful  crimson  color  to  a  non-luminous  flame.  A  white 
precipitate  is  produced  in  a  solution  of  Lithium  Chloride  upon  boiling  with 
Sodium  Phosphate  or  Carbonate. 

The  following  Compounds  of  Lithium  are  official: 
Lithium   Carbonate.  -— LijCO3. — Lithii    Carbonas,  U.    S. — Obtained 
from  the  Chloride  by  treating  its  solution  with  Ammonium  Carbonate. 
A  !i_fnt,  white  powder,  odorless  and  having  an  alkaline  taste;  permanent  in  the 

air.  Soluble  in  So  parts  of  water,  in  140  parts  of  boiling  water:  much  more 
soluble-  in  Carbonic  Acid  Water;  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

f'.-:  \  —  In  medichv  as  a  solvent  for  uric  acid  deposits  and  gouty  concretions; 
also  as  a  remedy  for  gouty  and  rheumatic  affections.  The  dose  of  tlu1  Lithium 
compounds  ranges  from  0.3  to  j  Cm.  15  to  15  gr>.). 

l-'mm  the  Carbonate  all  the  other  Lithium  compounds  are  easily 
made. 

Lithium  BromiJc. — LilJr. — Lithii  15romidum.  I'.  S.— Is  made  from 
the  Carbonate  by  decomposing  it  with  Ilydrobromic  Acid. 

A    white   granular   salt,    odorless,    and    hiving   a   sharp,  sli-htlv   bitter   taste; 


158  -      LITHIUM   COMPOUNDS. 

very  deliquescent.  Soluble  in  0.6  part  of  water  and  0.3  part  of  boiling  water; 
very  soluble  in  alcohol;  also  soluble  in  ether. 

f'sc-s. — It  has  the  same  medicinal  virtues  as  the  other  bromides,  only,  it  is 
claimed,  in  a  higher  degree,  because  more  soluble  and  containing  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  bromine. 

Lithium  Bcnzoatc. — LiC7H5(>2. — Lithii  Benzoas,  U.  S. — Made  from 
the  Carbonate  by  decomposing  it  with  Benzoic  Acid. 

A  light,  white  powder  or  small,  shining,  crystalline  scales;  odorless  or  of  a 
faint  benzoin-like  odor  and  of  a  cooling,  sweetish  taste.  Soluble  in  4  parts  of 
water  and  in  12  parts  of  alcohol. 

Uses. — To  some  extent  in  medicine  as  a  substitute  for  sodium  benzoate. 

Lithium  Citrate. — Li3C6H5O7. — Lithii  Citras,  U.  S. — Made  from 
the  Carbonate  by  saturating  a  solution  of  it  with  Citric  Acid. 

A  white  powder,  odorless,  and  having  a  cooling,  faintly  alkaline  taste;  delr 
quescent  on  exposure  to  air.  Soluble  in  2  parts  of  water,  almost  insoluble  in 
alcohol  or  ether. 

Uses. — Similar  to  those  of  the  carbonate. 

Lithii  Citras  Effcrvcscens. — U.  S. — A  mixture  of  Lithium  Carbon- 
ate, 70  Gm.;  Citric  Acid,  370  Gm.;  Sodium  Bicarbonate,  280  Gm. 
and  Sugar  to  make  1000  Gm. 

A  convenient  and  elegant  form  of  administering  Lithium  Salts.  The  dose  i ; 
.from  4  to  8  Gm. 

Lithium  Salicylate.-UiCJ3.iQy — Lithii  Salicylas,  U.  S. — Produced 
by  the  action  of  Salicylic  Acid  upon  the  Carbonate. 

A  white  or  grayish  white,  deliquescent  powder,  odorless  and  having  a  sweet- 
ish taste;  very  soluble  in  water  or  alcohol. 

Uses. — Similar  to  tnose  of  the  corresponding  salts  of  potassium  and  sodium. 


The  Alkaline  Earths. 

The  alkaline  earths  include  the  elements  Barium,  Calcium,  Stron- 
tium and  Magnesium. 

BARIUM.— Ba. 

Barium  occurs  in  nature  chiefly  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  or  heavy- 
spar,  and  as  Carbonate  or  Witherite.  The  metal,  obtained  by  electro- 
lysis, possesses  a  bright,  yellow  color,  and  burns  brilliantly  when  heated 
in  the  air. 

Only  one  salt  of  barium  is  official,  but  some  of  the  compounds  are  used  in 
chemistry  and  in  the  arts,  the  chloride  as  a  chemical  reagent,  the  sulphate  as  a 
pigment  and  the  nitrate  in  pyrotechny. 

Barium  Dioxide — BaO2. — Barii  Dioxidum,  U.  S. — Barium  Peroxide. 
Prepared  by  conducting  oxygen  over  Barium  Oxide  heated  to  redness. 

A  heavy,  grayish-white,  amorphous  powder,  odorless  and  tasteless.  When 
exposed  to  the  air,  it  slowly  attracts  moisture  and  carbon  dioxide,  and  is 
gradually  decomposed.  It  should  be  kept  in  well-closed  vessels. 

Almost  insoluble  in  cold  water,  with  which,  however,  it  forms  a  definite 
hydrate,  and  to  which  it  imparts  a  decidedly  alkaline  reaction.  Hydrochloric, 
phosphoric,  and  most  other  mineral  acids  decompose  it,  producing  the  corre- 
sponding barium  salts,  and  hydrogen  dioxide,  which  remains  in  solution  for  a 
considerable  time,  if  the  reaction  has  taken  piece  in  the  cold,  and  an  excess  of 
the  acid  is  present.  Owing  to  this  property  ft  is  used  for  the  preparation  of 
Aqua  Hydrogenii  Dioxidi,  U.  S.  Ph. 

CALCIUM.— Ca. 

Calcium  is  an  abundant  metal  in  nature,  being  represented  by  a  large 
number  of  compounds,  several  of  which,  like  Limestone  or,  native 
Calcium  Carbonate  and  the  Sulphate,  or  "Gypsum,"  constitute  no 
inconsiderable  portion  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  metal  itself,  although 
it  has  been  isolated  and  studied,  is  rarely  used  outside  the  chemical 
laboratory  and  for  the  production  of  artificial  light. 

It  is  obtained  by  electrolysis,  and  is  a  yellow  metal  harder  than  lend,  mallea- 
ble, tough,  or  in  some  conditions  brittle;  undergoes  oxidation  slowly  in  dry  air, 
rapidly  in  damp  air,  and  when  thrown  into  water  decomposes  it  with  rapid 
evolution  of  hydrogen. 

Lime. — CaO. — Calx,  U.  S. —Calcium  Oxide.  Made  by  calcining 
white  marble,  oyster-shells,  or  the  purest  varieties  of  natural  Calcium 
Carbonate,  or  Limestone.  Carbon  dioxide  and  water  are  expelled, 
and  Lime  or  Calcium  Oxide  remains. 

163 


i%*  CALCIUM. 

Grayish-white  masses,  which  upon  exposure  to  air  gradually  attract  moisture 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  fall  into  a  white  powder.  When  moistened  with 
water  the  latter  is  absorbed  with  the  liberation  of  heat,  the  lime  being  hydrated, 
commonly  termed  "slaked."  Mixed  with  3  or  4  times  its  weight  of  water, 
slaked  lime  forms  a  uniform,  smooth  magma  called  "milk  of  lime."  It  is  solu- 
ble in  750  parts  of  cold  water,  much  less  in  boiling  water,  1,300  parts.  Lime 
or  burnt  lime  must  be  protected  from  moisture  and  air,  and  slaked  lime  should 
be  prepared  when  wanted. 

Uses. — For  dehydrating  various  substances,  such  as  alcohol  and  ether;  in  the 
preparation  of  alkalies  and  alkaloids  and  certain  organic  acids.  In  preparing 
Chlorinated  Lime,  Potassium  Chlorate,  etc. 

Off.  Prep. — Liquor  Calcis,  a  saturated  solution  of  Lime  in  Dis- 
tilled water;  Potassa  cum  Calce,  Linimentum  Calcis  and  Syrupus 
Calcis. 

Sulphurated  Lime. — Calx  Sulphurata,  U.  S. — Commonly  misnamed  "Calcium 
Sulphide,"  is  a  mixture  of  sulphide  and  sulphate  of  calcium,  prepared  by  fu- 
sing together  dried  Calcium  Sulphate,  Charcoal  and  a  little  Starch. 

Uses. — As  a  depilatory,  and  internally  in  skin  diseases. 

CALCIUM    COMPOUNDS. 

Prepared  Chalk.—  CaCO3. -Greta  Preparata,  U.  S. — Native  Calcium 
Carbonate  freed  from  most  of  its  impurities  by  a  peculiar  process  of 
separation  with  water,  termed  ehitriation. 

White,  amorphous  powder,  usually  appearing  in  commerce  in  the  form  of 
small  cones  or  drops. 

Uses. — Medicinally  in  many  compounds,  also  largely  in  Face  Powders  and 
Dentifrices. 

Off.  Prep. — Hydrargyrum  cum  Creta,  Pulvis  Cretan  Compositus 
for  Mistura  Crete,  and  Trochisci  Cretoe. 

Calcium  Chloride. — CaCla. — Calcii  Chloridum,  U.  S. — Obtained 
by  the  reaction  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  on  Marble,  or  other  Calcium 
Carbonates  and  rendered  anhydrous  by  fusion  at  the  lowest  possible 
temperature. 

Hard,  white  masses,  which  have  a  pungent,  saline  and  bitter  taste.  It  is  a 
very  deliquescent  salt  and  must  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles. 

Uses. — As  a  valuable  test  reagent  in  the  pharmaceutical  laboratory,  for 
drying  certain  gases  and  liquids,  and  in  the  preparation  of  certain  Calcium 
compounds.  In  medicine  also  as  a  resolvent. 

Precipitated  Calcium  Carbonate. — CaCO3.-  Calcii  Carbonas  Prsecip 
itatus,  U.  S. — It  is  produced  by  the  double  decomposition  of  Calcium 
Chloride  and  Sodium  Carbonate. 

Impalpable,  white  powder,  without  odor  or  taste,  having  a  neutral  reaction 
and  insoluble  in  water.  At  a  red  heat  it  gives  off  carbon  dioxide,  and  is  con- 
verted into  calcium  oxide. 


STRONTIUM.  165 

Uses. — As  an  astringent  and  antacid  in  medicine,  and  largely  as  an  ingredient 
in  Face  Powder  and  Dentifrices. 

Precipitated  Calcium  Phosphate. — Ca8(PO4)j. — Calcii  Phosphai 
Praecipitatus,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  a  dilute  solution  of  Bone-Ash  in 
Hydrochloric  Acid  by  precipitation  with  Ammonia.  The  precipitate 
is  in  the  form  of  a  light-white  powder,  which  at  a  red  heat  fuses,  and 
on  cooling  forms  a  hard,  porcelain-like  mass. 

Uses.—  Formerly  in  preparing  Syrup  of  Calcium  Lactophosphate  and  in 
medicine  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  hypophosphite;  also  as  a  filtering  medium 

Off.  Prep. — Pulvis  Antimonialis,  and  Syrupus  Calcii  Lactophos- 
phatis,  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80. 

Calcium  Bromide. — CaBrf. — Calcii  Bromidum,  U.  S. — Made  by 
dissolving  Calcium  Carbonate  in  Hydrobromic  Acid. 

Whitish  salt  in  granules  or  powder,  without  odor,  and  a  saline,  bitter  taste. 
It  deliquesces  in  the  air,  is  soluble  in  0.7  part  of  water  and  i  part  of  alcohol 
melts  at  a  red  heat,  and  at  that  temperature  begins  to  give  off  bromine. 

I'scs. — Similar  to  those  of  the  otner  bromides. 

Calcium  Hypoplwsphitc.  —  Ca(PH2O2).J.  —  Calcii  Hypophosphis 
U.  S. — Obtained  by  heating  Phosphorus  with  Milk  of  Lime. 

Thin,  colorless  transparent  and  flexible  scales,  or  in  white,  pearly,  lustrous 
crystalline  powder.  Neutral,  or  slightly  alkaline,  odorless,  and  of  a  disagree- 
ably bitter  taste.  Soluble  in  6.8  parts  of  water,  in  6  parts  boiling  water,  insolu- 
ble in  alcohol. 

I'scs. — In  the  preparation  of  Syrup  of  Hypophosphites  and  various  unofficial 
Syrups,  Elixirs  and  Emulsions  used  in  the  treatment  of  pulmonary  diseases, 
etc.  [See  Nat.  Form.] 

Off.  Prep. — Syrupus  Hypophosphitum. 

STRONTIUM.— Sr. 

Strontium  occurs  in  nature  as  Sulphate  and  Carbonate,  the  latter 
being  a  mineral  found  in  Scotland  termed  Strontianit,  whence  the 
name  of  the  element  is  derived.  It  is  also  found  in  small  quantities 
in  barytes,  gypsum,  limestone,  sea-water  and  in  some  mineral  waters. 

The  metal  is  obtained  from  the  chloride  by  electrolysis  and  is  a 
yellow  ductile  metal  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  2.5. 

The  Salts  of  Strontium  have  much  the  same  character  as  those  of  Barium. 
They  are  all  made  from  the  Carbonate  or  from  the  Hydroxide  which  is  itself 
produced  by  heating  the  Nitrate,  the  most  common  commercial  Strontium 
compound.  The  Nitrate  is  largely  used  in  red-fire  owing  to  the  bright-red 
color  of  its  flame,  when  burned,  It  is  not  official. 

Strontium  Bromide. — SrBr2-f  6H2O. — Strontii    Bromidum,  I".  S.— 

Made  by  reaction  of  Plydrobromic   Acid   on   Strontium   Carbonate. 

Colorless,    transparent,    hexagonal    crystals,    odorless    and    having   a   saline, 


x66  MAGNESIUM 

bitter  taste,  very  deliquescent  and  should  be  kept  in  glass-stoppered  vials. 
Soluble  in  i  part  of  water,  readily  in  alcohol  and  precipitated  from  its  alcoholic 
solution  by  ether,  in  which  it  is  insoluble. 

Uses. — Similar  to  other  Bromides,  in  doses  from  i  to  2  Gm. 

Strontium  Iodide. — Srla-f  6H..O. — Strontii  lodidum,  U.  S. — Made 
by  reaction  of  Hydriodic  Acid  on  Strontium  Carbonate. 

Colorless,  transparent  hexagonal  plates,  odorless  and  having  a  bitterish, 
saline  taste.  Deliquescent  and  colored  yellow  by  exposure  to  air  and  light  and 
should,  therefore,  be  kept  in  dark,  amber-colored,  glass-stoppered  vials.  Solu- 
ble in  0.6  part  of  water,  also  in  alcohol  and  slightly  in  ether. 

Uses. — Similar  to  other  Iodides,  in  doses  from  0.5  to  i  Gm. 

Strontium  Zaftete.— Sr(C3HBOJ)2+3H2O.— -Strontii  Lactas,  U.  S. 
— Made  by  reaction  of  Lactic  Acid  on  Strontium  Carbonate. 

A  white,  granular  powder,  or  crystalline  nodules,  permanent  in  the  air, 
odorless  and  having  a  slightly  bitter,  saline  taste.  Soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  4 
parts  of  water. 

Uses. — In  affections  of  the  heart  and  kidneys  in  doses  from  i  to  3  Gm. 

MAGNESIUM.— Mg. 

Although  an  abundant  metal,  magnesium  is  not  free  in  nature.  It 
occurs  in  the  minerals,  magnesite,  dolomite,  kieserite,  asbestos,  talc, 
soapstone,  meerschaum  and  many  others;  it  occurs  as  the  Sulphate  in 
many  saline  springs,  notably  those  at  Epsom,  England;  as  Chloride  in 
sea-water,  and  in  many  salt  springs,  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  bones 
of  animals,  and  the  tissues  of  many  plants. 

Magnesium. — Mg. — The  metal  is  obtained  from  its  Chloride,  or  the  double 
Chloride  of  Magnesium  and  Potassium,  by  heating  it,  together  with  fluor  spar 
and  sodium,  in  a  red-hot  iron  crucible,  and  afterward  distilling,  avoiding  con- 
tact with  the  air,  when  the  crude  metal  is  obtained. 

Brilliant  silver-white  metal,  soon  tarnishing  in  damp  air,  sp.  gr.  1.75.  Melts 
at  a  red  heat,  and  may  be  inflamed,  when  in  the  form  of  rather  fine  wire  or 
ribbon,  by  holding  it  in  a  cindle,  when  it  burns  with  an  intensely  active  flame, 
producing  a  bulky  white  oxide. 

The  metal  itself  is  not  of  pharmaceutical  importance,  its  chief  use 
being  to  produce  a  strong  dazzling  light  similar  to  that  of  calcium. 

The  most  common  compound  is  the  Sulphate  and  from  this  all 
the  other  medicinal  compounds  are  indirectly  produced. 

Magnesium  Sulphate.  ~  MgSOt—  ~t\\(  ). — Magnesii  Sulphas,  U.S. — 
Commonly  known  as  Epsom  Salt.  It  occurs  native,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  and  is  also  manufactured  from  the  mineral  kieserite, 
which,  aside  from  its  impurities,  differs  in  composition  from  Epsom 
salt  only  in  having  six  molecules  less  of  water  of  crystallization. 

Four-sided  rhombic  prisms  or  acicular  crystals  without  odor,  taste  saline  and 
bitter,  freely  soluble  in  water  (1.5)  and  insoluble  in  alcohol. 


AND   COMPOUNDS.  167 

U:es. — In  the  preparation  of  the  carbonate,  and  in  medicine  as  a  purgative. 
Off.  Prep. — Infusum  Senna;  composition. 

Magnesium  Carbonate.  —  (MgCO:!)rf  Mg(OI  I^-f  5  I  \().  —  Mag- 
nesii  Carbonas,  U.  S.  —  It  will  be  seen  from  the  formula  that  the 
official  carbonate  is  really  a  mixture  of  the  Carbonate  and  Hydrox- 
ide. It  is  made  by  the  reaction  in  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate  and 
Magnesium  Sulphate. 

A  very  light  white  powder  or  friable  masses,  nearly  insoluble  in  both  alcohol 
and  water,  but  giving  to  the  latter  a  slight  alkaline  reaction,  Dissolves  with 
effervescence  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

Uses. — For  the  preparation  of  Magnesia,  Liquor  Magnesia  Citratis  and  other 
compounds,  and  in  medicine  for  similar  purposes  as  magnesia;  also  as  a  Face: 
Powder. 

Magnt'sii  Citras  A'fi-rriSteits,  U.  S. — A  granular  powder  obtained  by  mixing 
Magnesiurr.  Carbonate,  Citric  Acid,  Sodium  Bicarbonate,  Sugar  and  Water  and 
Alcohol,  drying  the  mixture  and  reducing  it  t  )  a  very  coarse  powder. 

Cses.- — To  furnish  effervescent  purgative  draughts. 

Aiagncsia.  —  MgO. — Magnesia,  V .  S.  —  Magnesium  Oxide. — Cal- 
cined, or  "Light"  Magnesia.  Obtained  by  igniting  (Yairiningj  the 
Carbonate. 

A  very  white  and  light  powder,  which  on  exposure  to  the  air  slowlv  absorbs 
carbon  dioxide  and  becomes  converted  into  the  carbonate.  It  should  therefore 
be  kept  in  tightly-stoppered  bottles. 

L'st's. — In  medicine  chiefly  as  a  corrective  to  acidity  in  the  alimentary   tract. 

Off.  Prep. — Ferri  Oxidum  Hydratum  cum  Magnesia;  I'ulvis  Khei 
compositus. 

Hcci'v  Mtr^ncsia. — Magnesia  Ponderosa,  U.  S.,  is  similar  to  the  above,  exu  ;  i 
in  possessing  only  one-fourth  the  bulk,  which  facilitates  its  administration. 

It  is  prepared  by  calcining  the  heavy  Carbonate;  the  latter  is  produced  in  the 
same  wav  as  the  ordinary  carbonate,  except  that  the  Magnesium  Sulpha'e  and 
Sodium  Carbonate  are  used  in  hot,  concentrated  solutions. 

^}rasue$iit;n  Sulf/iifc. — MgSO3--6H/). — Magnesii  Sulphis.  —  Ma<U 
by  the  reaction  of  Sulphurous  Acid  on  Magnesia  or  Magnesium  Car- 
bonate. Not  official. 

White,  crystalline,  colorless  and  bitterish  powder,  with  a  sulphurous  tast'\ 
changes  to  the  sulphate  gradual!  v  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  hence  should  \>L 
j.e^i  in  tightly-stoppered  bottles. 

L'st's. — Similar  to  those  of  sodium  sulphite. 


The  Aluminum  Group. 

This  group  includes  the  elements  Aluminum,  Cerium  and  Chro- 
mium. 

ALUMINUM.— Al. 

This  metal  does  not  exist  free  in  nature,  although,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  oxygen  and  silicon,  it  is  the  most  abundant  and  widely  dis- 
tributed of  the  elements. 

It  occurs  as  the  oxide  in  Corundum,  of  which  emery,  ruby  and 
sapphire  are  varieties;  in  the  minerals,  cryolite,  bauxite  and  diaspor; 
in  the  different  kinds  of  Feldspars,  which  make  up  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  weight  of  granite,  syenite,  gneiss,  mica,  porphyry,  and 
so  on;  in  kaolin  and  the  clays,  which  are  essentially  Silicates  of  alumi- 
num. The  metal  is,  therefore,  contained  in  abundance  in  all  fertile 
soils. 

The  metal  is  produced  from  its  ores  by  reducing  these  with  Carbon  and  the 
intense  heat  produced  by  an  electric  furnace. 

Aluminum. — Al. — A  tin-white,  very  sonorous  metal,  capable  of  receiving  a 
high  polish,  very  malleable,  ductile,  and  tough,  sp.  gr.  from  2.56  to  2.67,  con- 
ducts electricity  eight  times  better  than  iron,  oxidizes  but  little,  and  produces, 
with  copper  and  other  metals,  a  series  of  alloys,  some  of  which  have  exceed- 
ingly valuable  properties. 

The  metal  free  from  arsenic  is  used  for  testing  purposes  in  the  form  of  foil, 
wire  or  ribbon.  It  undergoes  slight  oxidation  upon  exposure,  but  the  oxide  is 
of  the  same  color  as  the  metal  and  articles  made  from  aluminum  do  not,  there- 
fore, become  discolored,  or  rust,  as  is  the  case  with  iron,  copper,  etc.  Alum- 
inum vessels  should  not  be  used  for  strong  alkalies  as  the  metal  is  easily  affected 
by  alkaline  hydrates. 

COMPOUNDS    OF    ALUMIXTM. 

Alum. — K,A1_,(SO4)4  —  24H..O. — Alumen,  I'.  S.  —  Potassium  Alum. 
—The  double  Sulphate  of  Aluminum  and  Potassium.  Obtained  by 
digesting  calcined  Clay  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  and  afterward  adding. 
to  the  solution  of  Aluminum  Sulphate  thus  obtained,  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  Potassium  Sulphate,  and  crystalli/ing. 

Ammonia  alum  is  produced  by  adding  Ammonium  Sulphate  instead 
of  potassium  sulphate. 

Transparent,  colorless,  inodorous  crystals  of  large  si^c,  which  are  octahedra, 
or  octahedra  combined  with  cubes,  having  a  very  astringent  and  somewhat  acid 
taste,  and  an  acid  reaction.  Effloresces  somewhat  on  exposure  to  air,  dissolves 


ALUMINUM.  169 

in  9  parts  of  water,  in  0.3  part  boiling  water,  freely  soluble  in  warm  glycerin, 
but  is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Fuses  at  92°C.  in  its  water  of  crystallization,  and 
again  solidifies  at  a  higher  temperature;  when  the  water  has  evaporated  the 
porous  mass  remaining  has  lost  nearly  one-half  (45  per  cent)  of  its  original 
weight  and  constitutes  the  "dried"  or  "burnt  alum,"  Alumen  Exsiccatum,  U.  S. 

f'sfs. — In  pharmacy,  for  the  preparation  of  other  compounds  cf  aluminum, 
as  a  precipitant  and  in  the  purification  of  Water  by  precipitation  (when  care 
should  be  observed  that  the  Ammonia  Alum  be  not  employed).  In  medicine,  on 
account  of  its  acid  and  astringent  properties,  and  in  the  powdered  form  as  an 
emetic. 

Off.  Prep. — Alumen  Exsiccatum. 

Aluminum  Hydrate. — Alii(HO)6. — Alumini  Hydras,  U.  S. — Oc- 
casionally found  native,  but  usually  prepared  from  Alum  by  precipitat- 
ing it  with  Sodium  Carbonate  in  hot  solution. 

Amorphous,  white,  odorless  and  tasteless  powder  insoluble  in  water  or 
alcohol.  At  a  red-heat  loses  water,  and  is  converted  into  the  oxide. 

Uses. — In  medicine,  as  an  antacid,  and  as  a  protective  to  the  mucous  mem- 
branes; and,  in  pharmacy,  for  preparing  the  Sulphate. 

Aluminum  Sulphate.—  Al.,(SO/)3-f  :6H?O.—  Alumini  Sulphas,  U.S. 
—  For  medicinal  use,  prepared  from  Aluminum  Hydrate  by  treating  it 
with  dilute  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Sometimes  in  thin  pearly  lamellae,  but  usually  in  a  white,  crystalline  powder, 
inodorous,  taste  sweetish  and  astringent,  and  acid  to  test  paper.  It  is  perma- 
nent in  the  air,  soluble  at  i5°C.  in  1.2  parts  of  water,  and  nearly  inpoluble  in 
alcohol,  loses  its  water  of  crystallization  at  about  aoo°C.  and  at  a  red-heat  is 
decomposed,  being  converted  into  oxide. 

Uses. — In  medicine,  largely  as  a  caustic  in  the  treatment  of  chronically  in- 
flamed surfaces,  exuberant  growths,  etc. 

CERIUM— Ce. 

The  only  compound  of  this  metal  of  pharmaceutical  importance  is: 
Cerium    Oxalate.  -Ce.j(C2O4)s-f  gH.O.—  Cerii  Oxalas,  U.  S.— Pre- 
pared from  Cerium  Chloride  by  precipitation  with  Oxalic  Acid.     The 
chloride  is  obtained  by  the  treatment  of  the  mineral  gadolenite   or 
cerite  in  which  form  the  metal  is  usually  found. 

The  salt  is  insoluble  in  both  alcohol  and  water,  but  soluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid. 

Uses. — In  the  powdered  form,  or  as  an  effervescing  granular  salt,  in  nervous 
affections. 


i?o  CHROMIUM. 

CHROMIUM.— Cr. 

This  element  does  not  occur  free  in  nature  but  as  the  mineral 
Chromite,  or  Chrom-iron  ore,  Cr2O3.  FeO,  from  which  Potassium 
Bichromate,  the  Oxide  and  the  metal  are  obtained.  Potassium  Bichro- 
mate, the  most  common  compound  of  Chromium,  was  described  under 
Potassium. 

Clii'oinic  Adit. — Cr().,. — Acidum  Chromicum,  U.  S. — Chromic 
trioxide  or  anhydride. — The  official  title  is  incorrect  as  this  compound 
is  a  trioxide,  or  anhydride,  and  does  not  form  an  acid  until  dissolved 
in  water:  CrOj-j-H^O  —  H,CrO4,  as  is  also  the  case  with  "Arsenous 
Acid." 

It  is  obtained  by  adding  to  a  saturated  solution  of  Potassium  Bi- 
chromate Sulphuric  Acid;  the  anhydride  crystallizing  out  on  cooling. 

Delicate  crimson,  needle-like  crystals,  or  strongly  lustrous,  scarlet,  rhombic 
prisms;  strongly  deliquescent  in  moist  air,  without  odor,  and  intensely  caustic 
\\hen  brought  in  contact  with  animal  tissues.  It  is  highly  soluble  in  water, 
forming  a  deep  orange-red  solution.  If  strong  alcohol  be  dropped  on  the  crys- 
tals, chemical  change  takes  place  with  incandescence,  the  anhydride  being  re- 
duced to  the'  mve-n  sescjui-oxide  of  chromium.  The  crystals  fuse  at  193  C.  to  a 
deep-red  liquid,  and  if  the  temperature  be  raised  to  250  C.,  decomposition 
occurs,  and  the  anhydride  is  reduced  to  Cr^O.,,  with  the  evolution  of  oxygen. 

Prcrauii^j; ;  in  /itinJiiir.;. — By  mixing  chromic  anhydride  with  alcohol,  ether, 
glycerin,  cork,  tannin,  sugar,  or  other  readily  oxidizable  substances,  rapid  com- 
bustion, or  even  explosion,  ma}'  be  produced.  Owing  to  its  strong  affinity  for 
wat'jr  it  must  be  kept  in  tightly  stoppered  bottles. 

Ot'.f. — In  medicine,  chiefly  as  caustic;  in  microscopy,  for  hardening  tissues 


The  Iron  Group. 


The  Iron  Group  includes  the  elements  Zinc,  Manganese,  Iron, 
Nickel  and  Cobalt 

ZINC.— Zn. 

Zinc  is  a  rather  abundant  metal,  though  rarely  occurring  uncom- 
bined  in  nature.  Its  most  important  ores  are  Calamine,  or  impure 
Carbonate,  /inc  blende,  franklinite  and  hydro/.incite  and  they  are 
often  found  associated  with  lead  ores. 

The  ores  are  first  roasted  to  expel  sulphur  and  other  impurities,  and  the 
oxide  thus  obtained  is  heated  with  charcoal  in  a  suitable  furnace.  The  zinc  is 
distilled  over  and  condensed. 

Zi/ii'iiiu. — Zn. — A  bluish-white  metal,  which  melts  at  433°C.,  is  brittle  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  but  between  ioo°C.  and  150°  is  quite  malleable  and 
ductile.  Its  sp.  gr.  is  6.9.  When  strongly  heated  in  the  air,  it  burns  with  a 
bluish  llame,  and  is  converted  into  the  oxide. 

Pure  Zinc  is  used  in  pharmaceutical  operations  in  the  production  of  hydro- 
gen gas  and  for  testing.  It  should  be  free  from  arsenic.  [See  U.  S.  Ph.] 

COMPOUNDS    OF    ZIXC. 

These  are  produced  by  the  action  of  Acids  on  the  Metal  or  from 
the  Carbonate  or  Oxide,  prepared  from  the  impure  Carbonate. 

Zinc  Chloride. — ZnCl.,. — Zinci  Chloridum,  U.  S.  — It  is  produced 
when  pure  Zinc  is  acted  upon  by  pure  dilute  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

Pure  zinc  being  expensive,  in  practice  ordinary  granulated  zinc  is  used,  and 
the  iron  and  other  impurities  removed  by  treating  the  solution  with  Nitric 
Acid,  evaporating  it  and  heating  the  dry  residue  to  fusion,  to  expel  the  nitric 
acid,  then  allowing  the  mass  to  cool.  The  solution  thus  obtained  is  treated 
with  Water  agitated  with  Zinc  Carbonate,  then  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  evapo- 
rated in  a  porcelain  dish,  until  a  drop  withdrawn  on  the  end  of  a  glass  rod 
solidifies  on  cooling  to  an  opaque  white  solid. 

Liquor  /.inci  Chioridi,  U.  S.,  prepared  in  this  way,  except  that  the  last  filtrate 
is  not  evaporated,  but  is  diluted  with  water,  has  the  sp.  gr.  1.535,  and  contains 
about  50  per  cent  of  the  dry  chloride. 

i'xi-s. — Valuable  as  a  deodorizer  and  disinfectant,  and  in  injections  and  washes. 
As  it  is  very  irritant,  and  in  large  doses  poisonous,  it  must  be  used  with  great 
care. 

Zinc  SW/X'rt^-— ZnSO4-f-7H2O.— -Zinci  Sulphas,  I'.  S. — Obtained 
by  treating  Zinc  with  Dilute  Sulphuric  Acid.  This  is  commonly 
called  "White  Vitriol." 

Large,  transparent,  rhombic  prisms,  or  in  small  prisms  or  prismatic  needles, 


i?2  ZINC. 

inodorous,  taste  styptic    nauseous,   acid  to  test  paper,   soluble  in  0.6  part  of 
water  and  in  3  parts  of  glycerin,  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

f'ses. — Externally  for  its  stimulant  and  astringent  properties,  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  injections,  washes,  collyria,  etc.;  internally  in  nervous  diseases;  as  a 
prompt  emetic  in  doses  of  10  grains.  In  large  doses  poisonous.  Also  in  the 
preparation  of  dry  Zinc  Oleate  by  chemical  decomposition,  and  many  other 
compounds. 

Precipitated  Zinc  Carbonate. — (ZnCO.j)23Zn(HO)2.  • —  Zinci  Car- 
bonas  Praecipitatus,  U.  S. — Made  by  double  decomposition  of  solu- 
tions of  Zinc  Sulphate  and  Sodium  Carbonate,  in  the  proper  propor- 
tions. Not  a  true  Carbonate. 

An  impalpable,  white  powder,  inodorous,  tasteless,  permanent  in  the  air,  and 
insoluble  in  water  or  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  the  mineral  acids  with  the  evolu- 
tion of  carbon  dioxide. 

Uses. — Externally  as  an  astringent  and  protective  to  inflamed  surfaces. 

Preparations, — Unguentum  Zinci  Carbonatis,  an  ointment  formerly 
official. 

Zit>c  Oxide. — ZnO. — Zinci  Oxidum,  U.  S. — Made  by  exposing  the 
Carbonate  for  some  time  to  a  dull  red  heat,  or  until  a  portion  of  it  no 
longer  effervesces  with  acids  (calcination). 

Nearly  white  or  slightly  yellowish,  amorphous,  inodorous,  tasteless  powder, 
which  on  heating  acquires  a  lemon-yellow  color. 

Uses. — Rarely  internally,  but  largely  as  a  Dusting  Powder  for  raw  and  in- 
flamed surfaces;  also  in  the  form  of  ointment. 

Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  Zinci  Oxidi,  also  made  with  petrolatum, 
which  in  this  case  is  superior  to  benzoated  lard  as  a  vehicle. 

Zinc  Bromide. — ZnBr2.  — Zinci  Bromidum,  U.  S.  —  Conveniently 
prepared  by  treating  granulated  Zinc  with  Hydrobromic  Acid. 

White,  granular,  very  deliquescent  powder,  with  a  sharp  saline  and  metallic 
taste,  readily  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Rarely  used  in  pharmacy  or  in 
medicine. 

Zinc  Iodide. — Znlg. — Zinci  lodidum,  U.  S. — May  be  made  either 
by  the  direct  accion  of  Iodine  on  Zinc  in  the  presence  of  water,  or  by 
that  of  Hydriodic  Acid  on  the  Oxide  or  Carbonate. 

White,  granular,  crystalline  and  very  deliquescent  powder,  which  is  inodor- 
ous, with  a  caustic,  metallic  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction,  readily  soluble  in 
water,  alcohol  or  ether.  When  heated  with  strong  sulphuric  acid  decomposi- 
tion takes  place,  and  iodine  and  sulphurous  oxide  are  liberated. 

Uses. — Sometimes  internally,  but  more  commonly  as  an  external  application 
as  a  wash  for  scrofulous  sores,  etc. 

Zinc  Phosphide. — ZnsP2. — Zinci  Phosphidum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by 
fusing  Zinc  in  a  crucible,  and  adding  the  requisite  amount  of  Phos- 
phorus a  little  at  a  time. 


MANGANESE.  173 

£ray,  crystalline,  friable  mass,  emitting  a  slight  odor  of  phosphorus,  under- 
goes very  slow  change  in  the  air,  and  at  a  high  temperature  absorbs  oxygen 
from  the  air,  and  is  converted  into  the  phosphate.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  or 
alcohol. 

Uses. — In  the  pill-form  in  doses  of  i  eg.  for  nervous  disorders. 

Zinc  Acetate. — Zn(C2H3Oa)2+2H2O. — Zinci  Acetas,  U.  S. — Ob- 
tained by  the  reaction  of  Acetic  Acid  on  Zinc  Oxide,  or  Carbonate. 

Thin,  white,  pearly,  six-sided  tables  or  scales,  having  a  faint  acetous  odor, 
sharp,  metallic  taste,  and  slightly  acid  reaction.  Soluble  in  2.7  parts  water 
and  36  parts  alcohol,  at  i5°C. 

Uses. — Valuable  as  an  irritant  and  astringent.     Seldom  used  internally. 

Zinc  Valcrianatc. — Zn^HgOJj-^H^O. —  Zinci  Valerianas,  U.  S. 
— Obtained  by  the  double  decomposition  of  Sodium  Valerianate  and 
Zinc  Sulphate  when  solutions  of  the  two  are  mixed. 

Soft,  white  scales  of  a  pearly  luster,  faint  odor  of  valerian;  sweet,  and  after- 
ward styptic,  metallic  taste;  soluble  in  100  parts  of  water  and  40  parts  of  alco- 
hol at  i5°C. ;  and  when  heated,  first  melts  and  afterward  decomposes,  leaving 
zinc  oxide. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  the  pill-form,  in  doses  of  one  grain,  in  nervous  affections. 

MANGANESE  — Mn. 

This  element,  belonging  to  the  iron  group  of  metals,  although  repre- 
sented in  a  number  of  common  ores,  pyrolusite  (the  dioxide),  braun- 
ite,  hausmanite,  manganite,  and  several  others,  is  not  nearly  so  abun- 
dant in  nature  as  iron.  It  is  not  found  in  nature  in  the  metallic  form, 
but  the  metal  is  extracted  from  its  ores  with  some  difficulty. 

COMPOUNDS   OF    MANGANESE. 

Manganese  Dioxide. — MnO.,. —  Mangani  Dioxidum,  U.  S. — Man- 

gani  Oxidum  Nigrum,  U.  S.  Ph.,  'So Black  Oxide  of  Manganese. 

A  native  mineral  containing  at  least  66  per  cent  of  the  pure  Dioxide. 

A  heavy,  dull  black,  inodorous,  tasteless  powder,  which  is  insoluble  in  water 
and  alcohol.  Used  as  a  source  of  Oxygen;  in  the  manufacture  of  Chlorine  gas, 
etc. 

Manganese  Sulphate. — MnSO4-[-4H2O — Mangani  Sulphas,  U.  S.  — 
Made  by  the  reaction  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  the  Dioxide. 

Transparent,  colorless  or  pale  rose-colored  crystals,  belonging  to  the  right 
rhombic  system.  Inodorous,  taste  bitterish  and  astringent,  slightly  efflorescent, 
soluble  in  0.7  parts  of  water  at  i5°C.,  but  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Reaction 
slightly  acid. 

Use. — Occasionally  as  a  tonic  in  doses  of  0.5  to  i  Gm. 


Iron  and  its  Compounds. 

IRON.— Fe. 

This  well-known  metal  exists  native  only  in  meteoric  stones,  but  its 
Oxides  and  Carbonates  are  very  abundant,  as  are  also  many  other  of 
its  compounds.  The  Oxides,  which  constitute  the  principal  source  of 
the  metal,  are  reduced  by  carbon  at  a  high  temperature,  and  on  this 
principle  depends  chiefly  the  process  of  "smelting"  and  extracting 
iron  from  its  ores. 

The  metal  is  too  familiar  a  commodity  to  need  particular  description  here. 
Iron  and  its  compounds  are  valuable  in  medicine  for  their  tonic  effects,  deepen- 
ing the  color  of  the  red  corpuscles,  and,  it  is  supposed,  increasing  their  number. 

The  metal  itself  is  official  in  two  forms: 

Iron. — Ferrum,  U.  S. — In  the  form  of  fine,  bright,  non-elastic  wire. 
It  is  used  in  making  many  of  the  preparations  of  iron.  The  other  is 

Reduced  Iron. — Ferrum  Reductum,  I'.  S. — Made  by  heating  the 
Hydrated  Peroxide  to  redness  in  an  iron  tube,  and  passing  a  stream 
of  Hydrogen  through  it.  From  the  process  of  its  preparation  also 
called  "Iron  by  Hydrogen"  and  Quevcnnc1  s  Iron,  after  the  name  of 
its  discoverer. 

It  is  a  fine,  grayish-black,  lusterless  powder,  attracted  by  the  magnet,  without 
odor  or  taste,  insoluble  in  water  or  alcohol,  and,  when  ignited  in  the  air,  is 
converted  into  ferric  oxide. 

COMPOUNDS    OF    IRON. 

Iron  forms  two  classes  of  compounds,  viz:  Ferrous  a.\\<\  ferric  com- 
pounds, the  element  in  the  former  being  bivalent,  in  the  ferric  trivalcnt, 
In  the  latter  class  of  compounds  the  iron  is  probably  present  as  a 
double  atom;  for  example,  the  ferrous  chloride,  FeCl2,  forms  a  ferric 
compound  of  the  composition  Fe,Cl6,  instead  of  FeCl3. 

Chemically  the  two  kinds  of  salts  are  distinguished  as  follows: 
The  ferrous  salts  all  have  a  greenish  color  and  are  easily  changed  to  the 
higher  ferric  salts  through  oxidation  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  moisture.  The 
alkalies  precipitate,  from  solutions  of  J\'rr<uis  salts,  Ferrous  Hydrate,  Fe(OH)o, 
which  through  absorption  of  oxygen  loses  its  greenish-white  color  and  becomes 
greenish-black  then  reddish-brown,  forming  the  Ferric  Hydrate,  Fe.,(OH')6. 
From  ferric  salts  the  alkalies  precipitate  the  reddish-brown  Ferric  Hydrate, 
Fe2(OH)6. 

Ferrous  salts  produce  with   Potassium   Ferrocyanide  a  dark-blue  precipitate 


IRON.  175 

"Turnbull's  blue."  Ferric  salts  produce  a  deep-blue  precipitate  of  "Prussian 
blue." 

The  two  kinds  of  salts  arc;  best  distinguished  by  Potassium  Ferricyanide, 
which  produces  in  /v/vv//.*-  Salts,  in  dilute  solution,  a  bluish-white  coloration 
rapidly  changing  to  a  dark-blue  precipitate;  \vith  Ferric  salts  no  precipitation  is 
produced,  but  a  deepened  brown  color  without  any  green  or  greenish-blue  tinge. 

The  two  classes  of  compounds  are  not  distinguished  in  their  official  Latin 
titles,  all  having  the  same  term,  Ferrum,  genitive  Ferri,  but  in  the  English 
titles  the  distinction  is  made  between  \\\v.  jcrriua  and  ferric  compounds,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  double  scale-salts. 

From  the  metal  by  direct  action  of  the  Acids  and  Halogen^  the 
Chloride,  Iodide  and  Sulphate  are  made  and  from  these  in  turn  all  the 
other  Compounds  and  Preparations  of  Iron. 

Ferric  Chloride.—  Fe,Cl(.+  i  2 Up.—  Ferri  Chloridnm,  U.  S.—  Made 
by  the  reaction  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  on  Iron  and  oxidi/.ing  the  fer- 
rous chloride  so  formed  into  ferric  chloride  with  Nitric  Acid.  The 
complete  oxidation  of  the  ferrous  compound  is  determined  by  testing, 
excess  of  Nitric  Acid  removed  by  heating  and  the  salt  allowed  tocrvs- 
talli/.e. 

An  orange  yellow,  very  deliquescent  salt,  usually  in  irregular  masses  of  a 
crystalline  fracture,  often  \vith  a  faint  odor  of  hydrochloric  acid,  a  styptic 
taste,  and  an  acid  reaction. 

J.iijiit'r  Ferri  L'liloriJi,  U.  S. — Is  prepared  in  the  same  way.  It  contains  of 
the  anhydrous  chloride  37.8  per  cent  in  solution  of  Water,  sp.  gr.  i.jSy,  with 
5  per  cent  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

Tinctura  Ferri  C/tloridi,  U.  S. — Contains  25  C.C.  of  the  solution  and  75  C.C. 
alcohol. 

Liquor  Ferri  ef  Antmonii  Acctatis,  U.  S. — Is  prepared  from  the  tincture 
chloride  of  iron  2  parts,  solution  ammon.  acet.  20  p.,  dil.  acetic  acid  3  p.  elixir, 
glycerin  and  water  of  each  to  make  100  parti  by  measure. 

Ferric  Hypophosfhite.—  Fc2(PH.,(  >,)G-—  Rrri  Hypopho.-phis,  I".  S. 
— Obtained  by  the  double  decomposition  of  Sodium  Hypophosphite 
and  Ferric  Chloride  in  aqueous  solution. 

Grayish  or  whitish,  inodorous,  nearly  tasteless  powder,  permanent  in  the  air, 
but  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  freely  so  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  unofficial  Syrups  <-f  Hype-phosphites. 

Iodide  of  Iron. — Fel.,. — Ferri  lodidum.  —  Ferrous  Iodide.    -Made  bv 
the  reaction  of  Iodine  upon  Iron  in  the  presence   of  \Valcr  until    the 
mixture  has  lost  the  odor  of  iodine  and  acquired  a  green   color,  when 
it  contains  ferrous  iodide  in  solution  which  may  be  obtained    1  >v  crys 
tallization. 


176  IRON 

Properties, — A  yellowish  or  grayish,  very  hygroscopic  powder,  with  a  sweet- 
ish and  slightly  ferruginous  taste.  Soluble  in  7  parts  of  water. 

Syrupus  Ferri  lodidi,  U.  S. — Prepared  by  filtering  the  Solution  of  Ferrous 
Iodide  into  hot  Syrup  in  such  proportion  that  it  contains  10  per  cent  by  weight 
of  ferrous  iodide. 

Both  of  these  preparations  must  be  kept   in  tightly-stoppered  vials. 

Ferrous  Sulphate. — FeSO4+7H2O. — Ferri  Sulphas,  U.  S. — This  is 
the  familiar  "Green  Vitriol,"  or  "Copperas,"  made  by  the  action  of 
Sulphuric  Acid  on  Iron. 

Large,  pale  bluish-green,  efflorescent  crystals,  in  the  form  of  monoclinic 
prisms,  inodorous,  with  a  styptic  saline  taste  and  reaction.  Soluble  in  1.8  parts 
of  water  at  i5°C.,  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Ordinary  impure  ferrous  sulphate  is 
commonly  called  "copperas." 

Ferri  Sulphas  Exsiccafus,  U.  S. — Dried  Ferrous  Sulphate. — Ob- 
tained by  heating  the  Sulphate  when  it  loses  its  water  of  crystallization 
and  forms  a  greenish-white  powder  representing  65  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  original  salt. 

Uses. — As  an  ingredient  in  Pil.  Aloes  et  Ferri,  other  unofficial  pills  and  in 
veterinary  practice.  In  large  doses  poisonous. 

Ferri  Sulphas  Granulatiis,  U.  S. — Granulated,  or  "Precipitated,"  Ferrous 
Sulphate. — Prepared  by  pouring  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution  of  the  Sul- 
phate into  Alcohol.  The  salt  is  thrown  out  as  a  pale  bluish-green  crystalline 
powder  which  responds  to  all  the  tests  for  the  ordinary  sulphate. 

Ferrous  Carbonate. — FeCOs. — Ferri  Carbonas. --Obtained  by  de- 
composing Ferrous  Sulphate  with  an  alkaline  Carbonate  or  Bicarbonate. 

Occurs  as  a  white  precipitate  rapidly  changing  into  the  ferric  compound  and 
assuming  a  dark  color,  upon  exposure  to  the  air.  Preserved  by  Sugar  added 
in  its  moist  state,  it  is  official  in  the  following  preparations: 

Ferri  Carbonas  Saccharatus,  U.  S. — A  saccharine  powder  containing  15  per 
cent. 

Massa  Ferri  Carbonatis,  U.  S. — Vallet's  Mass. — A  pill  mass  containing  about 
35  per  cent. 

Mistura  Ferri  Composita,  U.  S. — Griffith's  Mixture.  — A  saccharine  liquid 
containing  about  2  per  cent. 

Pilules  Ferri  Carbonatis,  U.  S. — Blaud's  Pill. —  Each  pill  containing  about 
0.06  of  ferrous  carbonate. 

Ferrous  Sulphide. — FeS. — Though  not  official,  is  important  as  being 
the  usual  source  of  Sulphureted  Hydrogen.  It  is  made  by  the  direct 
union  of  Iron  and  Sulphur  at  a  high  temperature. 

Ferric  Ammonium  Sulphate.  — Fe,(NH4)., (SOj4—  24H,O. — Ferri 
et  Ammonii  Sulphas,  U.  S. — Ammonio- Ferric  Alum  — Made  by  dis- 
solving Ammonium  Sulphate  in  a  hot  solution  of  Tersulphate  of  Iron 
and  crystallizing. 


COMPOUNDS.  177 

Transparent  octahedral  crystals  of  an  amethyst  or  violet  color,  efflorescent, 
inodorous,  and  of  an  astringent  taste.  Soluble  in  3  parts  of  water,  insoluble  in 
alcohol. 

Used  in  medicine  for  its  astringent  properties. 

From  Ferrous  Sulphate  two  official  .Solutions  are  prepared  by  oxidiz- 
ing the  Sulphate  with  Nitric  Acid  in  the  presence  of  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Liquor  Ferri  Subsulphatis,  U.  S.— Solution  Persulphate  of  Iron. — Monsell's 
Solution,  containing  about  43  percent  of  basic  ferric  sulphate,  sp.  gr.  1.550. 

Liquor  Ferri  Tersulphatis,  U.  S.  —  Solution  of  Ferric  Sulphate,  containing 
28.7  per  cent  of  the  salt,  sp.  gr.  1.320. 

From  the  Solution  of  Ferric  Tersulphate  the  Ferric  Hydrate  is  pre- 
pared and  from  this,  by  reaction  and  solution  with  their  respective  acids, 
the  Acetates,  Citrates.  Phosphates  and  Tartrates  are  produced. 

Ferric  Hydrate. — Fe.,(HO)6. — Ferri  Oxidum  Hydratum,  U.  S. — 
Made  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  Ferric  Sulphate  (tersulphate  of 
iron)  with  Ammonia  Water  and  thoroughly  washing  the  precipitate. 
This,  in  its  freshly  prepared  state,  is  the  best  antidote  to  arsenical 
poisoning,  and  the  materials  for  preparing  it  should  always  be  kept  on 
hand.  [See  U.  S.  Ph.] 

Off.  Prep. — Emplastrum  Ferri;  Trochisci  Ferri. 

Ferri  Oxiditm  Hydratum  cum  Magnesia,  U.  S. — Arsenic  antidote.  Is  pre- 
pared from  the  Tersulphate  Solution  by  converting  the  iron  into  the  Hydrate  by 
the  use  of  Magnesia 

Ferric  Acetate. — Obtained  by  reaction  of  Glacial  Acetic  Acid  on 
Ferric  Hydrate.  Is  official  only  in  the  following  solutions: 

Liquor  Ferri  .-h-etatis,  U.  S. — This  contains  31  per  cent  of  the  acetate,  sp.  gr. 
1.160.  It  should  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles,  away  from  the  light. 

Tinctura  Ferri  Acetatis,  formerly  official,  is  made  of  the  solution,  50  parts, 
alcohol  30  parts,  acetic  ether  20  parts  by  measure. 

Liquor  Ferri  Citratis,  U.  S. — Made  by  the  reaction  of  Citric  Acid 
on  Ferric  Hydrate  and  evaporating  the  solution  so  as  to  have  a  sp.  gr. 
of  1.250,  when  it  contains  about  35  per  cent  of  the  anhydrous  salt. 

Ferric  OVra/r.— Fe2(C6H5OT)2+6H2O.— Ferri  Citras,  U.  S.— Made 
by  evaporating  the  solution  at  a  temperature  not  higher  than  6o°C. 
until  reduced  to  the  consistence  of  syrup,  and  then  spreading  it  on 
glass  plates  to  dry. 

Transparent,  garnet-red  scales,  permanent  in  the  air,  odorless,  having  a  very 
faint,  ferruginous  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction.  Slowly  but  completely  soluble 
in  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

Iron  and  Ammonium  Citrate. — Ferri  et  Ammonii  Citras,  U.  S. — 
Made  by  mixing  10  parts  of  the  above  solution  with  4  parts  of  Am- 
monia Water,  evaporating  at  a  temperature  not  above  6o°C.,  until  it 


178  SCALE   SALTS 

has  been  reduced  to  a  syrupy  consistence,  then  spreading  it  on  glass 
plates,  and  drying. 

In  the  form  of  deliquescent,  garnet-red  scales,  which  must  be  kept  in  the 
dark,  or  in  closely-stoppered  bottles. 

From  this  salt  the  following  are  made: 

Fcrri  ft  Strychnine  Citrus,  U.  S. — Contains  i  per  cent  of  Strychnine  and  99 
per  cent  of  the  Citrate  of  Iron  and  Ammonium,  and  is  in  the  form  of  garnet-red 
deliquescent  scales. 

I'inntn  Fcrri  Citratis,  U.  S. — Contains  4  per  cent  of  Citrate  of  Iron  and 
Ammonium. 

Iron, and  Quinine  Citrate. — Ferri  et  Quininae  Citras,  U.  S. — Made 
by  evaporating  a  solution  containing  85  parts  of  Ferric  Citrate,  12 
parts  of  Quinine  and  3  parts  of  Citric  Acid,  at  a  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding 6o°C.,  until  it  reaches  the  consistence  of  syrup,  then  spread- 
ing it  on  plates  of  glass  and  drying 

Transparent,  yellowish-brown  or  reddish-brown  scales,  that  are  somewhat 
deliquescent,  inodorous,  and  with  a  bitter,  somewhat  ferruginous  taste.  Must 
be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles  in  a  dark  place.  Slowly  but  completely  solu- 
ble in  cold  water,  more  readily  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  but  partially  soluble  in 
alcohol. 

Soluble  Iron  and  Quinine  Citrate. — Ferri  et  Quininpe  Citras  Solu- 
bilis,  U.  S. — Made  in  the  same  way  and  of  the  proportions  of  the 
preceding  salt,  except  that  Ammonia  Water  is  added  to  form  Am- 
monium Citrate  with  the  Citric  Acid,  which  increases  the  solubility  of 
the  Quinine  Citrate. 

Thin,  transparent  scales  of  a  greenish,  golden-yellow  color,  rapidly  and  com- 
pletely soluble  in  cold  water,  but  only  partially  soluble  in  alcohol. 

I'iintni  Fcrri  Amarum,  U.  S. — Contains  5  per  cent  of  the  Soluble  Citrate  of 
Iron  and  Quinine. 

Soluble  Ferric  Phosphate. — Ferri  Phosphas  Solubilis,  U.  S.- — Ob- 
tained by  treating  Citrate  of  Iron  in  solution,  with  Sodium  Phosphate 
in  proper  proportions,  evaporating  the  solution  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  6o°C.,  until  it  reaches  a  syrupy  consistence,  and  drying  it 
on  glass  plates. 

Transparent,  bright-green  scales,  not  deliquescent,  turning  dark  on  exposure 
to  light  and  should,  therefore,  be  kept  in  dark  well-stoppered  bottles,  inodorous, 
having  a  somewhat  acid  taste  and  reaction,  freely  soluble  in  water,  and  insolu- 
ble in  alcohol. 

Off.  Prep. — Syrupus  Ferri,  Quinine  et  Strvchninie  Phosphatum, 
and  a  similar  unofficial  Elixir,  X.  F 

Soluble  Ferric  Pyrophosphate. — Ferri  Pyrophosphas  Solubilis,  U.  S. 
—  Prepared  in  the  same  way  as  the  last  named  salt,  except  that  Sodium 
Pyrophosphate  is  used  instead  of  the  phosphate. 


OF   IRON.  179 

Resembles  the  phosphate  very  closely  in  its  properties,  but  differs  in  produc- 
ing a  white  precipitate  instead  of  a  yellow  one  with  solution  of  silver  nitrate. 
f'ses. — Chiefly  in  Elixirs,  in  combination  with  Cinchona  or  its  alkaloids. 

Iron  and  Ammonium  Tart  rate. — 2  (FeO)NH4C4H4O6-f  5H,O. — 
Ferri  et  Ammonii  Tartras,  U.  S. — Made  by  dissolving  Ferric  Hydrate 
in  a  solution  of  Acid  Ammonium  Tartrate,  until  the  solution  is  satur- 
ated, then  evaporating  the  solution  at  a  temperature  not  higher  than 
60°,  and,  when  it  reaches  the  consistence  of  syrup,  spreading  it  on 
glass  plates  to  dry. 

Yellowish-brown,  or  red,  transparent  scales,  neutral  to  test  paper,  inodorous, 
sweetish  and  slightly  ferruginous  to  the  taste,  and  only  slightly  deliquescent. 
Soluble  in  water,  but  almost  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  Should  be  kept 
in  well-stoppered  bottles  in  a  dark  place. 

Iron  and  Potassium  Tartrate. — Fcrri  et  Potassii  Tartras,  U.  S. 

The  process  of  manufacture  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  preparation  just  de- 
scribed, Potassium  Bitartrate  being  used  instead  of  ammonium  bitartrate;  the 
salts  also  resemble  each  other  in  their  properties  and  uses. 

Ferrous  Oxalatc. — FeC2O4-|-H.,O. — Ferri  Oxalas.  Not  official. — • 
Obtained  by  treating  a  solution  of  Ferrous  Sulphate  with  the  proper 
proportion  of  Oxalic  Acid. 

A  yellowish,  crystalline  precipitate,  inodorous  and  nearly  tasteless,  perma- 
nent in  the  air,  but  slightly  soluble  in  water,  at  155  C.  loses  its  water  of  crys- 
tallization, and  at  a  higher  temperature  is  decomposed,  leaving  ferric  oxide. 

Ferric  Valerianate. — Ferri  Valerianas,  U.  S. — Made  by  adding  to 
a  cold  solution  of  either  Ferric  Chloride  or  Ferric  Sulphate  a  cold 
solution  of  Sodium  Valerianate  so  long  as  a  precipitate  is  produced. 

A  brick-red,  amorphous  powder  with  a  slight  odor  and  taste  of  valerianic 
acid.  It  is  decomposed  by  boiling  water,  leaving  ferric  hydrate. 

Uses. — Similar  to  other  valerianates;  dose  o.  i  Gm. 

Ferrous  Lactate. — Fe(C8H5O3)2-)-3H2O. — Ferri  Lactas,  U.  S. — 
Made  by  the  direct  action  of  Lactic  Acid  on  Iron. 

Greenish-white,  crystalline  crusts  or  grains,  not  deliquescent,  inodorous, 
with  a  sweetish,  ferruginous  taste  and  a  slightly  acid  reaction.  Slowly  br.t 
completely  soluble  in  40  parts  of  water,  in  12  parts  of  boiling  water;  almost  in- 
soluble in  alcohol. 

U;cs. — In  the  preparation  of  Syrupus  Hypophosphitum  cum  Ferro,  I".  S., 
consisting  of  i  part  of  the  above  Lactate  with  99  parts  of  Syrup  of  Hypopbos- 
phites. 


Lead.— Copper.— Tin. 

LEAD.— Pb. 

Lead  is  sometimes,  but  not  often,  found  free  in  nature,  but  its  ores 
are  rather  abundant,  the  most  important  being  the  Sulphide  (galena) 
and  the  Carbonate  (cerussite.) 

There  are  a  variety  of  ways  of  obtaining  it,  depending  on  the  character  and 
purity  of  the  ores.  From  a  pure  form  of  galena  it  is  obtained  by  roasting  it  in 
a  reverberating  furnace,  when  a  part  of  the  ore  is  reduced  and  a  part  converted 
into  the  sulphate,  and  then,  by  afterward  raising  the  temperature,  the  sul- 
phate is  also  decomposed.  In  inferior  ores  carbon  is  used  in  the  process. 

Plumbum. — Pb. — A  soft  metal,  with  a  metallic  lustre  and  a  blue-gray  color; 
very  ductile  and  malleable,  but  not  very  tenacious;  quite  soft;  sp.  gr.  11.4; 
melts  at  325°C.,  and  volatilizes  at  a  white  heat.  The  metal  itself  is  not  of  im- 
portance in  pharmacy. 

The  soluble  compounds  of  Lead  are  all  poisonous,  the  best  antidote 
being  Magnesium  Sulphate  15  Gm.  dissolved  in  a  glassful  of  water. 
Vomiting  should  be  promoted  by  hot  water  or  mustard  and  milk  or 
demulcent  drinks  should  be  administered  to  allay  irritation. 

Lead  Oxide. — PbO. — Plumbi  Oxidum,  U.  S. — Litharge. — Can 
be  made  by  heating  metallic  Lead  strongly  in  Air,  but  is  chiefly  ob- 
tained as  a  by-product  in  the  extraction  of  silver  from  its  ore. 

A  heavy  powder,  varying  in  color  from  yellowish  to  reddish,  permanent  in 
air,  odorless,  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  by  means  of  the 
blow-pipe  and  charcoal,  readily  reducible  to  metallic  lead. 

Uses. — In  pharmacy,  for  preparing  Lead  plaster  and  various  Salts  of  lead. 

Off.  Prep. — Liquor  Plumbi  Subacetatisj  Emplastrum  Plumbi. 
Red  Lead  is  a  mixture  of  different  oxides  of  lead,  is  of  a  bright-red  color  and 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  above. 

Lead  Acetate.  —  Pb(CJH3O2)!J  +  3 H2O.—  Plumbi  Acetas,  U.  S.— 
Sugar  of  Lead. — Obtained  by  treating  the  Oxide  with  Acetic  Acid. 

Colorless,  transparent  or  translucent  prisms  or  tables,  efflorescent,  and  slowly 
converted  into  carbonate  on  exposure  to  the  air,  with  a  faintly  acetous  odor, 
and  a  sweet,  astringent  and  metallic  taste,  soluble  in  2.3  parts  of  water  and  in 
21  parts  alcohol.  The  commercial  salt  should  be  purified  by  recrystallization 
for  medicinal  use. 

Uses. — As  an  astringent  in  washes  and  injections;  internally  in  the  pill 
form,  and  in  chemistry  as  a  precipitant  of  various  organic  principles. 

Subacetatc  of  Lead,  Solution.  —  Liquor  Plumbi  Subacetatis,  V.  S. — 
Sometimes  called  Goulard's  Extract.  Made  by  boiling  a  solution  of 


LEAD   COMPOUNDS.  181 

Acetate  of  Lead  in  Distilled  Water  with  Oxide  of  Lead  (litharge)  until 
no  more  oxide  is  dissolved,  or  it  is  converted  into  Subacetate.  The 
water  lost  by  evaporation  is  replaced  constantly  and  Distilled  Water 
added,  so  that  the  finished  liquid  shall  have  the  sp.  gr.  1.195  and  con- 
tain 25  per  cent  of  the  salt. 

The  subacetate  of  lead  in  this  solution  is  not  a  definite  compound,  but  a  mix- 
ture of  Oxyacetates.  Upon  exposure  it  absorbs  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmos- 
phere and  is  converted  into  insoluble  carbonate.  Distilled  water  is  therefore 
directed  to  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  dilute  solution  or  "lead  water," 
as  well  as  in  the  concentrated  solution.  It  should  be  preserved  in  small, 
tightly-stoppered  bottles. 

Uses. — Only  externally  as  an  astringent  and  sedative  and  in  the  following 
official  preparations: 

Liquor  Plumbi  Subacetatis  Dilutus,  containing  3  parts  of  the  above  Solution 
in  100  parts  of  Distilled  Water. 

Ceratum  Plumbi  Subacetatis,  prepared  by  mixing  20  parts  of  the  concentrated 
Solution  of  Lead  Subacetate  with  80  parts  of  Camphor  Cerate. 

Also  in  the  unofficial  Liniment  made  by  mixing  40  parts  of  concentrated 
Solution  of  Lead  Subacetate  with  Co  parts  of  Cotton  seed  Oil. 

Lead  C//-/w/^-.—(PbCO3)2Pb(OH),.— Plumbi  Carbonas,  .U.  S. 
—White  Lead. — Obtained  by  the  reaction  of  Carbonic  Acid  on  the 
Acetate. 

Heavy,  white  powder,  odorless,  tasteless,  permanent  in  the  air,  and  insolu- 
ble in  water  and  alcohol.  When  heated  strongly,  it  changes  to  yellow,  losing 
carbon  dioxide  and  being  converted  into  the  oxide. 

Uses. — Externally  as  a  protective  to  irritated  surfaces,  but  owing  to  its  poison- 
ous character  it  cannot  safely  be  applied  except  to  the  unbroken  skin.  It  is 
largely  used  in  the  arts,  ground  in  oil,  as  Paints. 

Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  Plumbi  Carbonatis. 

Lead  Nitrate. — Pb(XO,)2.— Plumbi  Xitras,  U.  S.— Made  usually 
by  treating  Litharge,  or  the  Carbonate  with  Dilute  Nitric  Acid. 

Colorless,  transparent  or  nearly  opaque  octahedra,  sp.  gr.  4.4,  permanent  in 
air,  and  soluble  in  2  parts  of  water,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol  at  i5°C. 

Uses. — In  preparing  the  Iodide,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  medicine  as  a  dis- 
cutient  and  as  a  deodorizing  agent. 

Lead  Iodide. — PbI2. — Plumbi  lodidum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  mix- 
ing a  solution  of  Lead  Nitrate  and  Potassium  Iodide. 

The  precipitate  obtained  is  a  bright  yellow  powder,  inodorous,  of  a  some- 
what metallic  taste,  turns  brick-reel  when  heated,  and  if  in  contact  with  the  air, 
gives  off  iodine  and  is  converted  into  oxyiodide,  which  is  citron-yellow  in  color. 
Almost  insoluble  in  alcohol  or  water. 

Uses. — Externally  in  ointment,  chiefly. 

Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  Plumbi  lodidi. 


i8z  COPPER. 

COPPER.— Cu. 

This  metal  occurs  in  considerable  abundance,  both  native  and  com- 
bined. Its  most  important  ores  are  the  Black  Oxide  or  melanconite, 
the  Red  Oxide,  malachite,  azurite,  chalcocite  or  copper  glance,  and 
chalcopyrite  or  copper  pyrites. 

The  methods  of  extracting  the  copper  differ,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  ores. 

Cuprum. — Cu. — A  red  metal  with  a  bright,  metallic  lustre,  very  tough,  mal- 
leable and  ductile,  has  a  sp.  gr.  of  8.94,  is  next  to  silver  in  its  conductivity  of 
heat  and  electricity,  and  fuses  at  a  bright-red  heat.  It  forms  two  oxides:  Red 
oxide  and  black  oxide  of  copper. 

Copper  Sulphate.—  CuSO4+5H2O.—  Cupri  Sulphas,  U.  S.—  Blue 
Vitriol. — Obtained  by  oxidizing  the  Sulphide  or  by  the  action  of 
Dilute  Sulphuric  Acid  on  the  Metal.  This  is  the  most  Common  Salt 
of  Copper  and  from  it  all  other  compounds  are  made. 

Large,  deep-blue,  translucent,  triclinic  crystals,  which  on  exposure  to  the  air 
effloresce.  They  have  an  acid  reaction,  are  without  odor,  and  have  a  dis- 
agreeable metallic  taste.  Soluble  in  2.6  parts  of  water  at  15  C.,  and  insoluble 
in  alcohol.  Converted  by  a  temperature  a  little  above  230  C.  into  the  anhy- 
drous salt,  and  at  a  red-heat  are  decomposed. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  Collyria,  Injections,  Lotions,  and  occasionally  as  an  emetic, 
or  in  smaller  doses  as  a  tonic  and  astringent.  As  a  reagent  in  various  Test 
Solutions  and  in  Fehling's  Solution.  [See  U.  S.  Ph.,  p.  483.] 

Cuprum  Ammonialum. — Made  by  rubbing  together  in  a  mortar,  until  effer- 
vescence ceases,  Sulphate  of  Copper  4  parts,  Carbonate  of  Ammonia  3  parts, 
and  drying  the  resulting  mass  on  bibulous  paper  at  a  gentle  heat.  Used  as  a 
Test  Solution  and  also  for  coloring  show-liquids.  Not  official. 

Copper  Acetate.  —  Cu(C2H3O.,),-{-H2O. — Cupri  Acetas,  A'erdigris. 
— It  is  variously  prepared,  but  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  solutions 
of  Lead  Acetate  and  Copper  Sulphate,  when  Lead  Sulphate  will  be 
precipitated  and  Copper  Acetate  remain  in  solution.  It  is  not  official. 

Deep  blue-green,  rhombic  prisms,  opaque  or  translucent,  efflorescent,  odor- 
less, taste  disagreeable,  metallic,  and  with  an  acid  reaction. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  Collyria,  Lotions,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  Corn  icmedies. 

'1'initiirc  Copper  AciLite.  — Rademacher.  Prepared  by  digesting  90  parts 
Copper  Sulphate  and  112.5  parts  Lead  Acetate  with  510  parts  water.  The 
mixture  is  boiled,  and  when  cold,  390  parts  Alcohol  added,  frequently  agitated 
for  4  days,  and  the  solution  obtained  by  nitration. 

The  Salts  of  Copper  are  not  poisonous,  but  its  double  compound 
with  arsenic,  the  aceto-arsenite  of  copper,  or  "  Paris  Green,"  is  ex- 
ceedingly poisonous. 


TIN.  183 

TIN.— Sn. 

This  metal  is  rarely  found  native.  Its  principal  ore  is  cassiterite,  or 
tinstone,  SnO^,  but  it  also  exists  in  the  form  of  tin  pyrites,  which  is  a 
compound  of  copper,  /inc,  iron  and  tin  with  Sulphur;  in  the  form  of 
silicate,  and  in  small  proportion  in  several  complex  minerals. 

It  is  obtained  from  Tinstone  by  crushing  and  washing  to  separate  lighter  im- 
purities, roasting  to  oxidize  sulphides  that  may  be  present,  washing  a  second 
time  to  get  rid  of  lighter  oxides  that  may  be  present;  and  then  reduction  of  the 
purified  tin  oxide  thus  produced,  in  a  suitable  furnace  with  anthracite  or  char- 
coal. 

Stanmim. — Sn. — Brilliantly  lustrous,  white  metal,  melting  at  235"C.,  vola- 
tilixing  at  a  white  heat,  sp.  gr.  7.293,  exhibits  a  fibrous  fracture,  when  bent 
produces  a  crackling  sound,  is  somewhat  harder  than  lead,  malleable  and  duc- 
tile, but  not  very  tenacious. 

As  tin  is  not  readily  oxidi/.ed  in  moist  air,  it  is  highly  valuable  for 
coating  iron  and  copper  surfaces,  which  is  its  principal  use  in  the 
arts. 

All  the  compounds  and  preparations  of  tin  are  poisonous. 

7'in  Chloride. — SnClL>.2H.2O.— Stannous  Chloride. — Obtained  by  dissolving 
Tin  in  hot  Hydrochloric  Acid,  is  used  as  a  reagent,  and  largely  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures. 


GOLD. Au. 

The  only  Compound  of  Gold  used  in  medicine  is: 
Gold  and  Sodium  Chloride. — AuCl3XaCl. — Auri  et  Sodii  Chloridum, 
U.  S. — "Double  Chloride  of  Gold  and  Sodium."  A  mixture  of 
equal  weights  of  Gold  Chloride  and  Sodium  Chloride.  Obtained  by 
dissolving  Gold  in  Nitrohydrochloric  Acid,  adding  Sodium  Chloride 
and  evaporating  the  solution  to  dryness. 

An  orange-yellow  powder,  very  deliquescent,  and  soluble  in  water. 

Used  as  a  tonic  in  dipsomania,  etc. 

CADMIUM. Cd. 

Cadmium  Bromide,  though  an  unofficial  salt,  is  sometimes  used  in  pharmacy. 
It  is  prepared  by  double  decomposition  of  solutions  of  cadmium  sulphate  and 
potassium  bromide. 


Silver  and  Mercury. 

SILVER.— Ag. 

Silver  occurs  both  free  and  in  combination.  Its  most  importanr 
ores  are  silver  glance  (Ag2S),  ruby  silver  (AgsSbSs),  silver-copper 
glance  (AgCu)aS,  and  horn  silver  (AgCl).  It  is  obtained  from  the 
ores  by  processes  which  differ  considerably,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ores,  their  purity,  etc. 

Argentum. — Ag. — A  bright,  white  metal,  susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of 
polish,  the  best  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity,  tenacious,  malleable,  and  very 
ductile,  fuses  at  iO4O"C.,  and  volatilizes  at  a  white  heat.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
about  10.5. 

Uses. — In  pharmacy  in  the  preparation  of  silver  compounds.  Its  surgical 
uses  are  also  numerous,  because  it  is  not  readily  oxidized. 

SILVER    COMPOUNDS. 

Silver  Nitrate. — AgNO3.  — Argenti  Nitras,  U.  S.— Obtained  by 
treating  Silver  with  dilute  Nitric  Acid.  This  is  the  most  important 
salt  of  silver,  and  from  it  all  the  other  compounds  are  produced. 

Colorless,  transparent,  tabular,  rhombic  crystals,  odorless,  very  caustic  and 
bitter  taste,  and  of  neutral  reaction.  Soluble  in  0.6  parts  of  water,  in  26  parts 
of  alcohol,  and  in  5  parts  boiling  alcohol.  The  crystals  and  aqueous  solution 
are  permanent  and  not  affected  by  light,  but  when  exposed  to  the  air  become 
rapidly  dark  in  color,  owing  to  decomposition  induced  by  contact  with  organic 
matter. 

Cses. — In  medicine  chiefly  as  a  local  remedy,  either  in  solution,  as  a  wash,  or 
in  substance  moulded  into  Sticks  (lunar  caustic)  for  cauterization.  Internally 
in  the  pill-form,  in  doses  of  about  2  eg.,  the  mass  being  made  with  an  excipi- 
ent  of  indifferent  character  to  prevent  reduction  of  the  salt.  It  is  used  largely 
as  a  Hair  Dye,  and  for  Indelible  Ink,  owing  to  its  property  of  leaving  a  perma- 
nent black  stain  upon  organic  matter.  Stains  upon  the  skin  may  be  removed 
by  a  solution  of  potassium  cyanide.  Taken  internally  in  large  doses  it  is  poison- 
ous sodium  chloride  being  the  proper  antidote. 

From  nitrate  of  silver  are  prepared  the  following: 

Argenti  Nitras  Diluhis,  U.  S. — Prepared  by  fusing  together  one  part  of  Sil- 
ver Nitrate  and  two  parts  Potassium  Nitrate,  and  casting  into  cones  or  cylin- 
drical sticks, 

Argenti  A'ifras  Fusits,  U.  S. — Lunar  Caustic. — Made  by  fusing  the  Nitrate 
and  adding  a  little  Hydrochloric  Acid  to  the  melted  mass,  which  is  then  cast 
into  sticks.  The  small  amount  of  Silver  Chloride  contained  in  this  form  of  the 
salt  makes  it  tough  and  the  sticks  less  friable. 

Silver    Oxide. — AgaO. — Argenti   Oxidum,    U.    S. — Obtained   by 


MERCURY.  185 

pouring  a  solution  of  Silver  Nitrate  into  either  a  solution  of  Lime  or 
of  Caustic  Potash. 

Inodorous,  brownish  or  blackish  powder,  undergoing  reduction  or  partial 
reduction  on  exposure  to  light;  its  uses  are  similar  to  those  of  the  nitrate  It 
should  not  be  triturated  with  readily  oxidizable  or  combustible  substances,  nor 
brought  in  contact  with  Ammonia. 

Silver  Iodide. — Agl. — Argenti  lodidum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  mix- 
ing a  solution  of  Silver  Nitrate  with  one  of  Potassium  Iodide. 

An  amorphous  light-yellow  and  heavy  powder  that  is  inodorous,  tasteless, 
and  insoluble  in  the  ordinary  solvents. 

Its  medicinal  use  is  limited. 

Silver  Cyanide. — AgCN. — Argenti  Cyanidum,  U.  S. — Made  by 
conducting  a  stream  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid,  distilled  from  a  mixture 
of  Potassium  Ferrocyanide  and  Sulphuric  Acid,  into  a  solution  of  Sil- 
ver Nitrate,  and  washing  and  drying  the  precipitate. 

White,  amorphous  powder,  permanent  in  dry  air,  but  slowly  growing  brown 
by  exposure  to  the  light.  It  is  without  odor  and  taste,  and  not  soluble  either  in 
alcohol  or  water;  exceedingly  poisonous. 

Off.  Prep. — Acidum  Hydrocyanicum  Dilutum. 

MERCURY.— Hg. 

This  is  the  only  metal  that  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is 
sometimes  found  free  in  nature  in  minute  globules,  but  is  usually  ob- 
tained from  its  ores,  the  chief  of  which  is  Cinnabar,  an  impure  Sul- 
phide of  Mercury.  The  metal  is  obtained  by  roasting  the  ores  in  a 
suitable  furnace.  The  sulphur  burns  and  the  mercury  volatilizes  and 
is  collected  in  a  cooling  chamber  to  which  the  vapors  are  conducted. 

Mercury.  —  Hydrargyrum,  U.  S. — Quicksilver. — A  silvery,  mobile 
liquid,  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  13.559,  solidifying  at  — 39°C.,  and  boil- 
ing at357-2°C.  It  forms  two  series  of  salts,  the  mercurous  and 
mercuric 

PREPARATIONS    OF    MERCURY. 

Mercury  in  all  its  forms  is  active,  and  in  its  more  soluble  forms, 
highly  poisonous.  It  acts  powerfully  on  the  glandular  system,  and  is 
useful  in  many  cases,  both  of  local  and  general  inflammation.  The 
metal  itself,  in  the  liquid  form,  is  not  often  medicinally  employed, 
but  by  triturating  it  for  a  long  time  with  fats,  chalk  or  sulphur,  it  is 
mechanically  reduced  to  a  fine  state  of  division,  and  in  this  form 
possesses  more  active  properties,  and  has  important  medicinal  uses. 
The  following  preparations  contain  mercury  in  the  metallic  form: 

Mass  of  Mercury. — Massa  Hydrargyri,   U.   S. — Blue  Mass. — Contains  one- 


:86  MERCURY 

third  its  weight  of  Mercury  made  into  a  mass  with  Licorice,  Althea,  and  Honey 
of  Rose,  with  the  addition  of  3  per  cent  of  Glycerin  to  keep  it  soft. 

Mercury  with  Chalk. — Hydrargyrum  cum  Creta,  U.  S. — Contains  38  per 
cent  of  Mercury,  triturated  with  Honey  and  Prepared  Chalk,  until  so  finely 
divided  that  no  globules  of  mercury  are  visible  with  a  lens  magnifying  no  less 
than  4  diameters. 

Mercurial  Ointment. — Unguentum  Hydrargyri,  U.  S.  —  "Blue  Ointment." — 
Containing  one-half  its  weight  of  Mercury.  The  Mercury  is  extinguished  with 
a  little  Mercury  Oleate  and  incorporated  with  Lard  and  Suet. 

Mercurial  Plaster. — Emplastrum  Hydrargyri,  U.  S. — Containing  30  per  cent 
of  Mercury  with  Lead  Plaster. 

Ammoniac  Plaster  with  Mercury. — Emplastrum  Ammoniaci  cum  Hydrargyro, 
U.  S. — Containing  18  per  cent  of  Mercury  with  Ammoniac  and  Lead  Plaster. 

COMPOUNDS    OF    MERCURY. 

Mercury  is  bivalent  and  forms  two  classes  of  salts,  i.  e. ,  mercurous 
and  mercuric  compounds. 

In  the  mercurous  compounds  two  atoms  of  mercury  combine  with 
the  salt-producing  radical,  while  in  the  mercuric  one  atom  of  the  metal 
exerts  its  bi valence.  This  distinction  is  best  shown  by  the  formulas 
of  the  official  compounds  as  follows: 

Compounds  of        Mercurous.  Mercuric. 

O Oxide=HgO 

Cl.         Chloride=Hg,Cl^     Chloride=HgCl2 
I.  Iodide=Hg,I2  Iodide=HgI., 

S.  Sulphate=HgSO4 

NH4       Ammon-Chlor=XH2HgCl 

CN Cyanide=Hg(CN)2. 

The  Mercuric  Chloride,  Sulphate,  and  Cyanide  are  the  only  compounds 
sparingly  soluble  in  water  and  more  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  as  is  also  the 
Iodide.  The  Mcrcurous  compounds  are  almost  insoluble  in  either  water  or 
alcohol. 

The  two  classes  of  compounds  are  distinguished  by  the  following  reactions: 
Hydrochloric  Acid  with  mercurous  salts  white  precipitate;  with  mercuric  no 
precipitate. 

Potassium  Iodide  with  mercurous  salts  greenish-yellow  precipitate;  with 
mercuric,  yellow  precipitate  turning  scarlet. 

Ammonia  Water  with  mercurous  salts,  black  precipitate;  with  mercuric  a 
white  precipitate. 

Compounds  of  mercury  are  more  or  less  affected  by  light  and  should 
be  protected  against  it  by  being  kept  in  dark-colored  bottles. 

Mercury  forms  with  Sulphur  five  compounds:  Red  Mercuric  Sul- 
phide, HgS,  found  native,  and  from  which  mercury  is  chiefly  derived; 
also  Black  Sulphide  of  the  same  composition;  Mercuric  Sulphate, 
HgSO4,  by  reaction  of  sulphuric  acid  on  the  metal;  Yellow  Mercuric 
Subsulphate,  Hg(HgO)2SO4,  by  decomposition  of  the  mercuric  sul- 


COMPOUNDS.  187 

phatc  in  boiling  water,   and  Merctirous  Sulphate,  Hg.,SO4,  made  by- 
direct  union  of  the  metal  with  mercuric  sulphate,  or  with  sulphur. 

Red  Mercuric  Sulphide. — HgS.  — Hydrargyri  Sulphidum  Rubrum.— 
Comrnc.rily  known  as  Cinnabar. — Occurs  native,  and  in  that  form  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  principal  ores  of  mercury.  It  is  also  made  by  heat- 
ing together  Mercury  and  Sulphur,  in  proper  proportions,  and  finally 
subliming  the  mixture. 

In  the  form  of  brilliant,  dark  red  masses,  having  a  crystalline  structure,  or 
else  a  bright  scarlet  powder;  inodorous,  tasteless,  permanent  in  the  air;  insolu- 
ble in  water  or  alcohol;  it  turns  dark  on  heating,  but  resumes  its  normal  hue 
again  on  cooling.  The  pure  sulphide,  used  in  the  arts  as  Vermilion,  is  com- 
pletely volatilized  by  heat,  which  is  not  true  of  samples  adulterated  with  red 
lead,  or  with  basic  lead  chromate.  Seldom  used  medicinally. 

Black  Afcrcitrif  Sulphide.,  or  "Ethiop's  Mineral,"  has  the  same  composition, 
and  is  made  by  fusing  together  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and  mercury. 

Yclloiv  Mercuric  ^ul'sulphatc.—\\^( \ IgOj aS( \.  —  I lydrargyri  Sub- 
sulphas  Flavus,  U.  S.  —  "Turpeth  Mineral."-— The  normal  sulphate  is 
added  to  boiling  distilled  water  and  heated,  when  upon  cooling  of  the 
mixture  the  compound  precipitates,  is  washed  and  dried. 

Heavy,  bright  lemon-yellow  powder,  unchangeable  in  the  air,  odorless,  slight 
metallic  taste,  sp.  gr.  6.44,  very  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  and  when  heated  turning  red,  but  resuming  its  original  color  on  cool- 
ing. It  is  a  powerful  irritant  poison.  But  little  used  medicinally. 

Mild  Mercurous  Chloride. — Hg2Cl.,. —  Hydrargyrum  Chloridtim 
Mite,  U.  S. — Calomel. — Mild  Chloride  of  Mercury. 

Obtained  by  the  double  decomposition  of  Mercurous  Sulphate  and 
Sodium  Chloride.  Mercurous  Sulphate  is  mixed  with  Sodium  Chlo- 
ride in  a  suitable  retort  and  subjected  to  heat:  Hg2SO4-|-2NaCl 
Hg2Ci2-f-Na.2SO4.  The  calomel  is  sublimed  and  collected  in  a  cool 
chamber,  when  it  is  washed  with  water  to  free  it  from  the  soluble  mer- 
curic chloride,  and  then  dried. 

A  white  impalpable  powder,  showing  small  isolated  crystals  under  the  micro- 
scope, assuming  a  yellowish  coloration  upon  trituration,  and  becoming  grayish 
upon  exposur0  to  light.  Insoluble  in  neutral  solvents,  but  decomposed  by 
strong  acids  and  colored  black  by  ammonia  water.  It  should  be  kept  in  dark 
amber-colored  bottles. 

Caution. — In  contact  with  the  chlorides  of  ammonium,  potassium 
and  sodium,  it  undergoes  a  change  into  mercuric  chloride,  and  great 
care  '-hould,  therefore,  be  observed  in  dispensing  calomel  in  conjunc- 
tion with  these  substances. 

Uses. — In  medicine  as  a  cathartic,  and  externally  as  a  wash  com- 
bined with  lime  water. — Lotio  Xigra,  X.  k. 

Off.  Prep. — Pi  hike  Antimunii  com]'.;  Pihike  Catharlkve  coinp. 


188  MERCURY 

Corrosive  Mercuric  Chloride.  —  HgCl2.  —  Hydrargyri  Chloridum 
Corrosivum,  U.  S. — Corrosive  Chloride,  or  Bichloride  of  Mercury. — 
Corrosive  Sublimate. — Made  by  the  double  decomposition  of  Mer- 
curic Sulphate  and  Sodium  Chloride,  heating  the  mixture  and  obtain- 
ing the  mercuric  chloride  by  sublimation. 

Heavy  white  crystalline  masses,  or  colorless  rhombic  prisms.  Sp.  gr.  5.4, 
fuses  at  265°  C.  and  at  300°  C.  sublimes  without  residue.  Permanent  in  air, 
inodorous  (but  its  dust  very  irritating),  with  an  acrid  metallic  taste,  soluble  in 
16  parts  of  \vaterat  15°,  in  3  parts  of  alcohol,  in  4  parts  of  ether  and  in  14  parts 
of  glycerin.  It  is  a  powerful  irritant  poison.  Antidote:  White  of  egg  or  milk. 

L Tst-s. — In  making  many  mercury  compounds  in  medicine,  as  an  alterative 
and  externally  as  an  antiseptic.  It  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  known  antisep- 
tics, but  owing  to  its  poisonous  properties  it  must  be  used  only  with  great  care, 
With  potassium  iodide  it  forms  a  double  compound,  a  solution  of  it  being  a 
valuable  reagent  for  the  alkaloids  (Afayer's  Solution},  With  Lime  Water  it 
forms  a  yellow  mixture,  Lotio  Flava,  "Yellow  Wash,"  N.  F. 

Dose. — Internally  from  4  to  16  mg.  (^  to  \  gr. ) 

Yellow  Mercuric  Oxide.  —  HgO.  —  Hydrargyri  Oxidum  Flavum, 
U.  S. — Obtained  by  mixing  solutions  of  Mercuric  Chloride  and  Soda, 
and  collecting,  thoroughly  washing  and  drying  the  precipitate. 

A  light  orange-yellow,  amorphous,  heavy  impalpable  powder,  permanent  in 
the  air,  but  becoming  darker  on  exposure,  and  should,  therefore,  be  protected 
from  the  light,  odorless,  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  changing 
to  red  when  strongly  heated. 

Off.    Prep. — Oleatum  Hydrargyri;  Ung.  Hydrargyri  Oxidi  Flava. 

Yellow  Mcrci/roits  Iodide. — Hg2I2- — Hydrargyri  lodidum  Flavum, 
U.  S. — Hydrargyrum  lodidum  Viride. —  Protiodide,  Yellow,  or 
Green  Iodide  of  Mercury. — Obtained  by  precipitating  an  acid  Solu- 
tion of  Mercurous  Nitrate  with  Potassium  Iodide,  thoroughly  washing 
and  drying  the  precipitate  formed. 

A  bright  yellow  amorphous  powder,  odorless  and  tasteless,  which  becomes 
darker  colored  on  exposure  to  the  light,  without  odor  or  taste,  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  and  nearly  so  in  water.  It  is  less  poisonous  than  the  red  iodide. 

L'si's. — Chiefly  in  treatment  of  syphilis  in  the  pill-form,  in  doses  8  mg.  to  3 
dcg.  (}$  to><  gr.) 

Red  Mercuric  Iodide. — HgI2. — Hydrargyri  lodidum  Rubrum,  U.  S. 
• — Biniodide  of  Mercury. — Obtained  by  the  reaction  of  Potassium 
Iodide  and  Mercuric  Chloride  in  solution. 

Scarlet  red,  crystalline  powder,  without  color  or  taste,  permanent  in  air, 
nearly  insoluble  in  water  and  soluble  in  130  parts  of  alcohol,  and  in  15  parts  of 
boiling  alcohol;  also  soluble  in  solutions  of  potass,  iodide  or  mercuric  chloride. 
A  powerful  irritant  poison. 

Uses. — Occasionally  given  in  syphilis,  either  alone  in  the  pill  form,  or  insolu- 


COMPOUNDS.  189 

tion  in  conjunction  with  potassium  iodide,  but   mainly  used  externally  in  treat- 
ment of  skin  diseases,  glandular  swellings,  etc, 

Off.  Prep. — Liquor  Arseni  et  Hydrargyri  lodidi. 

Ammoniated  Mercury. — NH^HgCl. — Hydrargyrum  Ammoniatum, 
U.  S. — White  Precipitate. — Obtained  by  decomposing  a  solution  of 
Mercuric  Chloride  in  Ammonia  Water  in  excess  a  white  precipitate  of 
mercuric  ammonium  chloride  being  formed: 

HgCl24-2NH4OH=NH.iHgCl-fNH4Cl-f-2H2O. 

This,  after  being  washed,  is  dried  between  sheets  of  filter  paper  at  a 
gentle  heat. 

It  is  used  only  in  the  form  of  ointment. 

Unguentum  Hydrargyri  Ammoniati. — U.  S.,  strength  10  parts  to  90  of  Ben- 
zoinated  Lard. 

Mercuric  Nitrate. — Hg(XO3),. — Hydrargyri  Nitras. — Made  by  dis- 
solving metallic  Mercury  in  Nitric  Acid.  It  is  official  in  the  follow- 
ing forms: 

Liquor  Hydrargyri  Nitratis. — U.  S. — Containing  60%  by  weight  of  Mercuric 
Nitrate  with  some  free  nitric  acid;  sp.  gr.  of  the  solution  2. 100. 

Unguentum  Hydrargyri  Aritratis. — U.  S. — Citrine  Ointment. — Prepared  by 
mixing  a  solution  of  Mercuric  Nitrate  with  Lard  Oil,  previously  acted  upon  by 
nitric  acid  in  order  to  prevent  the  decomposition  of  the  mercuric  nitrate 

Red  Mercuric  Oxide. — HgO. — Hydrargyri  Oxidum  Rubrum,  U.  S. 
—  Red  Precipitate.  Usually  obtained  by  decomposing  Mercuric 
Nitrate  by  means  of  heat. 

Crystalline,  red  or  orange-red,  heavy  powder,  or  scales,  permanent  in  air, 
odorless,  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  It  turns  darker  when  heated, 
and  at  a  high  temperature  evolves  oxygen  and  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state. 
Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  Hydrargyri  Oxidi  Rubri. 

It  will  be  observed  there  is  no  chemical  difference  between  the  Yel- 
low and  Red  Oxides,  both  being  Mercuric  compounds.  The  differ- 
ence in  color  is  due  to  a  variation  in  the  arrangement  of  the  molecules 
derived  from  the  different  methods  of  producing  the  two  oxides. 

Mercuric  Cyanide. — Hg(CN)2. — Hydrargyri  Cyanidum,  U.  S.— 
Obtained  by  dissolving  Mercuric  Oxide  in  Hydrocyanic  Acid,  pro- 
duced by  treating  Potassium  Ferrocyanide  with  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Colorless,  or  white  quadrangular  prisms,  permanent  in  air,  inodorous,  bitter. 
metallic  taste,  if  kept  from  the  light,  permanent  in  the  air,  and  soluble  at  15 
C.  in  12.8  parts  of  water  and  15  parts  of  alcohol.  It  is  very  poisonous. 

Uses. — Similar  to  mercuric  chloride,  but  a  dangerous  and  little  used  remedy. 


Antimony.— Bismuth. 

ANTIMONY.— Sb. 

This  metal  rarely  occurs  in  the  native  state.  Its  most  common  ore 
is  stibnite,  Sb.2Ss,  but  many  others  are  known,  as  a  compound  of  iron, 
antimony  and  sulphur;  of  copper,  antimony  and  sulphur;  and  a  com- 
pound of  lead,  antimony  and  sulphur,  etc. 

Stibium. — Sb. — Lustrous,  silver-white  metal,  of  a  crystalline  structure,  and 
at  ordinary  temperatures  brittle;  fuses  at  425^0.,  volatilizes  at  a  red  heat,  and 
at  the  temperature  of  its  melting  point  readily  oxidizes  in  the  air,  but  remains 
unchanged  at  ordinary  temperatures,  Its  sp.  gr.  is  about  6.86. 

The  most  common  compound  is  the  Sulphide  from  which  the  other  sulphur 
compounds  of  Antimony  are  made. 

Antimony  Sulphide. — Sb.,S3. — Antimonii  Sulphidum,  U.  S. — This 
occurs,  as  above  stated,  in  nature  as  the  mineral  stibnite.  It  is  freed 
from  the  impurities,  with  which  the  native  mineral  is  usually  asso- 
ciated, by  fusion,  the  impurities  mostly  remaining  behind,  while  the 
fused  Sulphide  is  poured  off. 

In  masses  of  a  steel-gray  color,  more  or  less  striated,  and  of  a  metallic  lustre, 
forming,  when  pulverized,  a  dull  grayish  powder,  which  is  insoluble  in  alcohol 
or  water,  and  without  odor  or  taste.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  black  oxide 
of  manganese,  which  it  outwardly  resembles,  by  its  ready  fusibility. 

Uses. — It  is  seldom  used  in  medicine,  but  constitutes  the  chief  source  of  the 
metal  and  of  the  various  compounds  of  antimony. 

Purified  Antimony  Sulphide. — Antimonii  Sulphidum  Purificatum, 
U.  S. — The  finely  powdered  sulphide  is  freed  from  coarse  particles  by 
elutriation  and  macerated  for  five  days  in  Ammonia  Water,  which 
dissolves  the  arsenic.  The  powder,  after  being  washed,  is  finally  dried. 

A  heavy  grayish-black  powder,  insoluble  in  water  or  alcohol. 

Its  chief  use  is  in  the  preparation  of  the  following: 

Sulphurated  Antimony. — Antimonium  Sulphuratum,  U.  S. — "Ker- 
mes  Mineral." — Consists  chiefly  of  Antimonious  Sulphide  mixed  with 
a  small  amount  of  Antimonious  Oxide.  Obtained  by  dissolving  the 
purified  sulphide  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  one  of  the  Fixed  Alkalies, 
and  then  precipitating  it  by  means  of  Dilute  Sulphuric  Acid. 

An  amorphous,  reddish-brown  powder,  inodorous,  tasteless,  and  insoluble 
both  in  water  and  alcohol.  When  heated  with  twelve  times  of  hydrochloric 
acid  it  is  nearly  all  dissolved  with  the  evolution  of  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Uses. — It  is  not  much  used  at  present  in  medicine,  but  has  the  essential  prop- 
erties of  other  antimony  compounds. 

Off.  Prep. — Pilulce  Antimonii  composite. 

190 


ANTIMONY.  191 

Antimony  Oxide. — Slx-O.,. — Antimonii  Oxidum,  U.  S. — This  oxide- 
exists  in  nature  as  the  mineral  cervatite,  but  it  is  usually  prepared  for 
medicinal  use  from  the  Chloride  by  precipitation  in  water. 

A  heavy,  grayish-white  powder,  but  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  insoluble 
in  alcohol.  Soluble  in  hydrochloric  and  tartaric  acids,  and  in  hot  solution  of 
potassium  bitartrate.  When  heated  to  a  bright  red  heat  it  sublimes  and  forms 
crystals  called  flowers  of  antimony. 

Uses. — In  pharmacy  to  prepare  Tartar  Emetic,  and  occasionally  in  med- 
icine as  a  nauseant,  sudorific  or  emetic. 

Off.  Prep. — Pulvis  Antimonialis. 

Antimony  and  Potassium  Tartratc. — 2K(SbO)CiH4O6-|-H2O. — 
Antimonii  et  Potassii  Tartras,  U.  S. — Tartar  Emetic. — Made  by 
the  action  of  Acid  Tartrate  of  Potassium  on  Oxide  of  Antimony,  in 
the  presence  of  Water. 

Colorless,  transparent  crystals  of  small  size,  in  the  form  of  rhombic  octa- 
hedra  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  become  white  and  opaque,  are  inodorous, 
have  a  sweetish,  followed  by  a  disagreeable,  metallic  taste.  Soluble  in  17  parts 
water  at  15  C.,  in  3  parts  of  boiling  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  which  precipi- 
tates it  from  aqueous  solution  as  a  fine  crystalline  powder. 

Uses. — As  a  test;  in  preparing  compounds,  and  in  medicine  as  an  emetic  and 
irritant.  As  an  antidote  tannin  should  be  given. 

Off.  Prep. — Syrupus  Scillai  compositus;  Vinum  Antimonii. 

BISMUTH— Bi. 

Bismuth  exists  in  the  metallic  state  in  some  localities.  The  com- 
mercial supply  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  mines  in  Saxony,  where  it 
occurs  associated  with  silver,  cobalt,  and  nickel.  It  also  exists  as  the 
oxide  and  sulphide,  and  in  other  combinations.  It  is  readily  sepa- 
rated from  the  metals,  with  which  it  is  alloyed,  by  taking  advantage 
of  its  comparatively  low  fusing-point. 

Bisnnithinn. — Bi. — Hard,  brittle,  bright,  metallic  luster,  crystalline  structure, 
grayish,  with  a  reddish  tinge,  sp.  gr.  9.823,  melts  at  270  C.,  and  expands  in 
solidifying.  The  metal  itself  is  not  used  in  medicine. 

COMPOUNDS    OF     BISMUTH. 

Bismuth  Snbnitrate. — BiOXO;V4-HjO. — Bismuthi  Subnitras,  U.  S. 
— Obtained  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  Nitric  Acid,  pouring  the  con- 
centrated solution  into  Ammonia  Water,  redissolving  the  precipitated 
hydroxide  in  Nitric  Acid  and  again  precipitating  with  a  solution  of 
Sodium  Carbonate;  the  Subcarbonate  so  formed  is  again  dissolved  in 
Nitric  Acid  and  the  solution  poured  into  ammoniated  water,  the  Sub- 
nitrate  precipitates,  is  washed  and  dried. 

Heavy,  white  powder  of  somewhat  varying  chemical  composition  permanent 


tga  BISMUTH. 

•n  vne  air,  odorless,  tasteless,  and  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  At  a  red 
ueat  it,  like  the  subcarbonate,  is  converted  into  yellow  bismuthous  oxide. 

(Jses.—  Internally,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  pepsin,  in  disorders  of 
the  stomach  and  alimentary  canal,  where,  owing  to  its  insolubility,  it  protects 
A^.amod  surfaces.  Externally  as  injection  and  Ointment,  and  popularly  as 
i  snuff  in  catarrh. 

Also  for  preparing  Citrate  of  Bismuth,  and  several  unofficial  compounds 

Bismuth  Citrate. — BiCfiH5O7. — Bismuthi  Citras,  U.  S. — Obtained 
by  boiling  the  Subnitrate,  in  a  solution  of  Citric  Acid. 

White,  amorphous  powder,  permanent  in  the  air,  odorless,  tasteless,  insolu- 
ble in  water  and  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  water  of  ammonia  Citrates  and  alkalies. 

Uses. — Similar  to  subnitrate  and  subcarbouate,  aud  to  prepare  the  citrate  of 
bismuth  and  ammonia. 

Bismuth  and  Ammonium  Citrate. — Bismuthi  et  Ammonii  Citras, 
U.  S.  — Made  by  dissolving  Bismuth  Citrate  in  weak  Ammonia-Water, 
/iltering  and  evaporating  the  liquid  until  it  is  of  a  syrupy  consistence, 
'.spreading  upon  glass-plates  and  allowing  it  to  dry,  when  the  salt  is 
obtained  in  scales. 

Peaiiy  or  nearly  transparent  scales,  becoming  opaque  on  exposure  tc  the  air, 
c-f  neutral  or  faintly  alkaline  reaction,  %'ery  soluble  in  water,  but  sparingly  in 
alcohol.  The  salt  loses  ammonia  if  not  carefully  protected  from  the  air,  and 
becomes  insoluble  in  water,  but  when  the  liquid  is  rendered  slightly  alkaline  by 
addition  of  ammonia-water,  it  becomes  again  easily  soluble. 

i  'st's. — In  many  Elixirs  associated  with  iron,  quinine,  hydrastine,  strvchnine, 
pepsin,  etc.  With  pepsin,  which  requires  an  acid  solvent,  the  sodio-bismiith 
tartrate  has  been  employed,  instead  of  the  ammonio-citrate  of  bismuth,  the 
.latter  being  precipitated  in  acidulated  solutions. 

Liquor  Bismuthi  contains  two  grains  of  the  ammonio-citrate  in  one 
fluid  drachm.  See  Xat.  Form. 

Bismuth  Subcarbonate. — (BiO).,COs-(-  H.2O. — Bismuthi  Subcarbonas, 
U.  S. — Obtained  by  dissolving  Metallic  Bismuth  in  Nitric  Acid,  and 
pouring  the  solution  into  Ammonia  Water,  dissolving  the  washed 
precipitate  in  Nitric  Acid  and  pouring  the  solution  of  the  Nitrate  thus 
formed  into  a  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate,  similary  to  the  first 
-.tops  in  the  process  for  making  the  Subnitrate,  collecting  and  thor- 
oughly washing  and  drying  the  precipitate. 

Whitish,  or  slightly  yellowish,  amorphous  powder,  of  somewhat  varying 
chemical  composition,  unchangeable  in  the  air,  inodorous,  tasteless,  insoluble 
•n  water  and  alcohol,  and  at  a  red  heat,  is  converted  into  yellow  bisnu  th  oxide. 

VMS. — Same  as  subnitrate,  which  see. 


Cellulose  and  Derivatives. 

Cellulose  or  Cellulin  constitutes  the  principal  portion  of  the  cell- 
walls  of  plants,  and  together  with  one  of  its  modifications,  tignin,  it 
represents  the  greater  proportion  of  dried  wood.  Because  of  its  wide 
distribution  Cellulose  is  an  important  substance,  and  in  some  of  its 
modifications,  such  as  cotton,  paper,  wood  and  coal,  is  the  most  nearly 
indispensable  substance  to  mankind. 

Cellulose  has  the  same  chemical  composition  as  Starch,  C6H10O5,  or 
a  multiple  of  this  and,  like  it,  may  by  the  action  of  acids  be  converted 
into  glucose.  These  substances  have  therefore  been  designated  chemi- 
cally as  the  Cellulin  group  and  have  been  thus  treated  in  works  of 
chemistry.  For  the  purposes  of  pharmacy,  however,  this  classification 
is  not  desirable,  as  each  class  is  best  studied  by  itself. 

I'harmaceutically  and  chemically  considered  Cellulose  furnishes 
some  of  the  most  important  chemical  and  technological  agents,  which 
may  be  grouped  according  to  the  methods  of  manufacture  as  follows: 

Cellulose: 

A.  By  separation  of  Lignin  and  impurities: 

1.  Mechanical. — Cotton,  Linen,  Jute, 

2.  Pharmaceutical. — Paper,  Purified  Cotton,  Lint. 

B.  By  chemical  decomposition: 

3.  By  Nitration. — Nitro-Celkilin — Pyroxylin. 

4.  From  oxalates  with  H.,SO4,  Oxalic  Acid. 

5.  By  destructive  distillation:  Percentage. 

Incondensable  Gases 25 

Pyroligneous  Acid 40 

Tarry  Liquid  10 

Solid,  Charcoal,  etc 25 

100 

These  will  be  treated  in  the  order  that  they  are  derived,  together 
with  theu'  compounds  and  preparations. 

FORMS    AND    MODIFICATION'S    OF    CELLULOSE. 

Cellulose  occurs  in  a  fairly  pure  form  in  the  bast-cells  of  certain 
plants,  such  as  the  Flax,  Hemp,  etc..  and  in  a  still  purer  form  in  the 
hairs  attached  to  the  seed  of  the  Cotton  plant. 

They  consist  of  single,  elongated,  rather  thin-walled  cells  which,  when  dry, 
collapse  and  form  flattened  and  somewhat  twisted  bands.  But  these  fibers  in 


200  COTTON. 

their  natural  form  contain  more  or  less  coloring  and  resinous  matter  of  whicn 
they  must  be  freed  before  being  used  for  making  the  finer  fabrics  and  especially 
before  they  can  be  used  in  pharmacy.  Their  chief  value  in  pharmacy  depend5 
upon  their  power  of  absorbing  liquids  due  to  the  capillary  attraction  exercised 
by  the  cells,  which]  renders  these  forms  of  Cellulose  invaluable  in  surgery  to 
abstract  irritating  liquid  (pus),  thus  keeping  the  wound  clean.  They  are  also 
used  as  filtering  media  for  the  same  reason. 

Purified  Cotton. — Gossypium  Purificatum.  U.  S. — Absorbent  Cot- 
ton.— The  hairs  of  the  seed  of  Gossypium  herbaceum  L. ,  freed  from 
adhering  impurities  and  deprived  of  fatty  matter. 

The  "raw"  cotton  is  boiled  in  an  alkaline  solution,  washed  and 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  Chlorine,  again  washed  with  water  and 
then  with  dilute  Hydrochloric  Acid,  rinsed  thoroughly  in  weak 
Alkaline  water  and  finally  in  pure  water  and  then  dried. 

The  cotton  so  treated  has  great  absorbent  power,  is  insoluble  in  all  ordi- 
nary solvents,  but  soluble  in  copper  ammonium  sulphate  solution. 

Uses. — In  surgery  and  for  the  preparation  of  Medicated  Cottons  by  saturating 
it  in  solutions  of  antiseptic  agents,  such  as  Carbolic  Acid,  etc.,  and  drying. 

Other  forms  of  Cellulose  used  in  surgery  are  Lint  made  from  Linen  obtained 
from  the  Linum  usitatissimum,  Hemp  and  Jute. 

The  principal  modifications  of  Cellulose  are  lignin,  the  thick-celled  portion 
or  wood,  and  suberin,  which  constitutes  the  principal  portion  of  Cork. 

Paper. — Charta. — Is  prepared  from  Cellulose  direct  in  the  form  of  wood, 
straw,  or  linen  rags  by  heating  with  steam  under  pressure  in  revolving  cylin- 
ders with  Alkalies,  beating  into  a  pulp  and  bleaching  with  Chlorine.  The  pulp 
is  transferred  to  endless  felt-belting  revolving  on  heated  cylinders  and  dried, 
the  sheets  finally  being  pressed  between  rollers  to  give  them  a  smooth  or  "cal- 
endered" surface. 

Paper  to  which  no  glue  or  similar  substance  has  been  added  is  called  "un- 
sized" paper,  and  is  the  kind  directed  for  the  official  Papers,  prepared  by  soak- 
ing the  paper  in  a  saturated  solution. 

Chartula  means  small  paper,  and  has  reference  to  the  paper  used  for  en- 
wrapping powders,  hence  its  use  in  dispensing  directions.  For  this  purpose  wax 
and  paraffin  paper  is  also  employed. 

Parchment  paper  is  prepared  by  dipping  unsized  paper  in  cold  5o-per-cent 
Sulphuric  Acid,  then  in  Ammonia  Water,  rinsing  in  pure  water  and  finally  rolling 
it  so  as  to  give  a  polished  surface.  The  acid  converts  the  surface  of  the  paper 
into  a  gummy  substance  which  gives  to  the  paper  great  strength. 

CELLULOSE    PRODUCTS    BY    CHEMICAL    DECOMPOSITION. 

Nitro-Cellulose — Gun  Cotton. — By  treating  Purified  Cotton  with  a 
cooled  mixture  of  Nitric  and  Sulphuric  Acids,  it  is  changed  into  Nitro- 
Cellulin  and  may  contain  from  two  to  six  molecules  of  NO3  according 
to  the  proportion  of  Nitric  Acid  used. 

The  (//-nitrate  is  not  scluble  in  ether  and  alcohol  and  is  not  explosive. 


OXALIC   ACID.  201 

Tho  iWra-nitrate  is  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol  and  is  slightly  explosive. 

The  /^.rrt-nitrate  is  insoluble,  is  highly  explosive  and  is  the  true  Gun  Cotton. 

A  mixture  of  these,  consising  chiefly  of  the  tetra-nitrate,  is  official 
under  the  name  of: 

Pyroxylin.  —  Pyroxylinum,  U.  S. — Soluble  Gun  Cotton. — Made  by 
immersing  10  Gm.  Cotton  in  a  mixture  of  140  C. C.  Nitric  Acid  and 
220  C.C.  Sulphuric  Acid,  cooled  to  32°C.: 

4HN03+CiaH30Ol0-CIJH1606(N03)4+4H20, 

thoroughly  washing  first  in  water,  then  in  Alcohol  and  carefully  dry- 
ing the  product.      The  Sulphuric  Acid  simply  aids  the  reaction. 

From  this  the  official  class  of  Collodions  are  prepared  by  solution 
in  Ether  and  Alcohol  and  addition  of  medicinal  agents. 

Colloditim,  U.  S.— Pyroxylin  3  Gm..  Ether  75  CC.,  alcohol  25  CC. 

Coliodliim  Flexile,  U.  S. — 5  Canada  Turpentine,  3  Castor  Oil,  Collodion  to 
100  Gm. 

Collodium  Cantharidatum,  U.  S. — 60  Gm.  Cantharides  are  extracted  with 
Chloroform  and  the  extract  concentrated  to  15  Gm.  is  mixed  with  Flexible  Col- 
lodion to  make  100  Gm. 

Collodium  Stypticum,  U.  S. — 20  Gm.  Tannic  Acid  dissolved  in  alcohol  5  C.C. 
and  ether  25  C.C.  and  mixed  with  Collodion  to  make  100  C.C. 

Oxalic  Acid. — H2CaO4. — Aciduni  Oxalicum. — Is  a  dibasic  acid.  It 
is  widely  distributed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  occurring  as  acid 
Potassium  Oxalate  in  sorrel  and  some  other  plants,  but  more  commonly 
in  combination  with  Calcium  in  rhubarb,  curcuma,  etc.  This  latter 
compound  is  also  found  in  the  animal  body. 

It  may  be  made  from  Sugar  by  the  action  of  Nitric  Acid  and  in 
other  ways,  but  commercially  it  is  made  by  heating  Saw-dust  with 
Potassa  and  Soda,  forming  Oxalates  of  Potassium  and  Sodium.  By 
Sodium  Carbonate  the  former  is  converted  into  Sodium  Oxalate 
which  is  formed  into  Calcium  Oxalate  by  the  addition  of  Calcium 
Hydrate.  This  Calcium  Oxalate  is  decomposed  by  Sulphuric  Acid 
into  insoluble  Calcium  Sulphate,  Oxalic  Acid  being  set  free  and  ob- 
tained by  crystallization  from  the  solution. 

Tabular  crystals,  colorless,  intensely  sour,  soluble  in  8  parts  of  cold  water 
and  in  all  proportions  in  boiling  water.  The  pure  acid  does  not  blacken  when 
heated  on  platinum  foil,  but  meltsat  about  100  C.  and  sublimes  at  about  i6o°C., 
being  partly  decomposed  into  carbon  monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide.  The  acid 
is  very  poisonous;  the  proper  antidote  is  chalk  or  magnesia. 

Oxalic  acid  itself  is  not  official,  but  represented  in  the  Volumetric  Solution 
for  quantitative  testing.  [See  U.  S.  Ph.].  It  is  used  for  making  the  Oxalates. 


PRODUCTS  OF  DESTRUCTIVE  DISTILLATION  OF  WOOD. 
When  wood  is  burned  in  a  furnace  without  access  of  air  the  result- 
ing products  may  be  summarized  as  follows  in  order  of  their  deriva- 
tion: 

f  Carbon  monoxide,  CO;  dioxide,  CC»2. 

Gases. — Non-Condensable,  25%  \  Marsh  Gas,  CH4;     Acetylene,  C2H2. 

(  Propene,  C3H6;  Ethylene,  C2H1. 

f  Acetone,  Furfurol. 

Vapors. — Condensable  Liquid,    I  Methyl  Alcohol,  Methylamine. 
50%  ]  Acids. — Acetic,  Formic,  Butyric. 

[  Crotonic,  Capronic,  Propionic. 

|   Tar,  Creosote. 
I  Toluol,  Xylol,  Cumol,  Methol. 
Tarry  Liquid,  lo%  \  Cresol,  Phlorol. 

Naphthalene,  Pyrene,  Chrysene. 
[  Paraffin. 

Solid  Residue,  15%  <j  Charcoal,  Inorganic  Salts 

The  Gases  are  of  but  little  importance,  sometimes  being  utilized 
as  fuel  during  the  process  of  distillation. 

The  liquid  obtained  after  separation  from  the  tarry  portion  consti- 
tutes the  so-called pyroligneous  acid,  or  "crude  wood  vinegar."  This 
is  treated  with  Lime  which  neutralizes  the  acids  forming  Calcium 
Acetate,  etc.,  and  upon  distillation  yields  the  readily  vaporizable 
liquids,  Acetone  and  Methyl  Alcohol  which  come  over  and  are  con- 
densed in  the  order  of  their  respective  boiling  points. 

Acetone. — C3H6O. — Pyroacetic  Ether. — Chemically  known  as 
dimethyl  ketone,  is  a  very  volatile  liquid,  boils  at  56°C.  and  is  the 
first  liquid  that  comes  over  in  the  distillation  of  wood.  It  has  the  sp. 
gr.  of  0.800,  soluble  in  all  proportions  of  water,  alcohol  and  ether. 

It  has  great  solvent  properties,  readily  dissolving  gun-cotton,  camphor, 
resins,  oils,  etc.  It  is  used  for  the  production  of  Chloroform  and  Acetophenon 
or  Hypnon,  a  liquid  of  hypnotic  properties. 

Methyl  Alcohol. — CH3OH.-  Commonly  called  ''wood  alcohol"  or 
"wood  naphtha."  The  product  obtained  as  above,  purified  by  recti- 
fication. 

Limpid,  colorless,  volatile  liquid,  of  a  peculiar  odor,  and  a  warm  alcoholic 
taste,  sp.  gr.  0.820,  boiling  point  65°C.,  soluble  in  all  proportions  of  water, 
alcohol  and  ether. 

Uses. — It  is  not  used  in  medicine  but  as  a  solvent  for  fixed  and  volatile  oils, 
resins,  etc.,  largely  in  the  arts.  Methylated  spirit  is  common  alcohol  mixed 
with  25  per  cent  of  methyl  alcohol,  used  in  England  for  industrial  purposes, 
free  from  internal  revenue  tax. 

Acetic-  Acid. — HC2H8O3.  — A  monatomic  acid  having  one  replaceable 
hydrogen  atom. 


ACETIC   ACID.  203 

Found  in  plant-juices  free  and  combined  with  Calcium  and  Potas- 
sium especially  in  the  wood.  Also  in  animal  organism,  in  the  perspira- 
tion and  in  the  urine. 

Acetic  Acid  may  be  obtained  in  many  ways: 

1.  By  decomposition  through  oxidation  and  fermentation. 

2.  Through  oxidation  of  alcohol. 

3.  By  distillation  of  wood  and 

4.  Through  decomposition  of  acetates. 

Commercially  it  is  chiefly  obtained  from  crude  Calcium  Acetate  ob- 
tained by  destructive  distillation  of  wood  as  above  referred  to. 

The  calcium  acetate  is  dissolved  in  water  and  after  settling,  the  clear  liquid 
is  drawn  off  and  treated  with  sodium  sulphate;  in  the  double  decomposition 
which  takes  place,  insoluble  calcium  sulphate  and  soluble  sodium  acetate  are 
formed.  The  clear  liquid  containing  the  sodium  acetate  is  now  drawn  off, 
•evaporated  to  dryness,  heated  to  about  26o°C.,  to  char  any  remaining  organic 
impurities,  the  residue  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  clear  liquid  separated  from  the 
rediment.  By  treating  the  liquid  with  sulphuric  acid,  separating  from  the  crys- 
tals of  sodium  sulphate  that  have  been  formed,  the  acid  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation. 

In  the  oxidation  method  or  the  "quick  vinegar  process,"  a  dilute  alcoholic 
solution  (5  to  "]%}  is  permitted  to  drip  slowly  through  a  large  cask  filled  with 
clean  wood  shavings.  The  cask  is  perforated  with  holes  for  free  circulation  of 
air.  Before  adding  the  dilute  alcohol,  a  small  quantity  of  warm  vinegar  is 
poured  in,  and  some  fermented  malt  liquor,  or  some  "mother  of  vinegar."  The 
.latter  contains  microscopic  plants  (ntyeodermi  aceti],  which  act  as  a  ferment. 
The  alcoholic  solution  is  now  permitted  slowly  to  drip  through  the  cask;  soon 
the  shavings  become  coated  with  the  ferment  organisms,  oxidation  of  the  alco- 
hol takes  place,  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  cask  rises,  causing  a  free 
circulation  of  air,  and  the  alcoholic  solution  is  now  rapidly  converted  into  a 
more  or  less  impure  solution  of  acetic  acid,  which  issues  in  a  slow  stream  from 
an  orifice  in  the  bottom  of  the  cask,  and  is  called  vinegar. 

Vinegars  are  also  made  by  fermentation  of  the  poorer  qualities  of  wine  (wine 
vinegar),  of  cider  (cider  vinegar),  of  malt  (malt  vinegar),  etc.  In  all  these 
processes,  alcohol  is  first  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  a  saccharine  solution, 
and  then  the  alcohol,  by  agency  of  the  mycodermi  accti  and  exposure  of  the 
liquid  to  the  air,  is  oxidized  to  acetic  acid.  Pure  acetic  acid  may  be  obtained 
from  vinegar  by  a  process  similar  to  that  which  has  been  described  for  obtain- 
ing it  from  wood  vinegar. 

Acetic  Acid  is  official  in  the  following  forms: 

Acetic  Acid. — Acidum  Aceticum,  U.  S. — A  liquid  composed  of  36 
per  cent  of  absolute  acid  and  64  per  cent  by  weight  of  water;  sp.  gr. 
1.048. 

A  clear,  colorless  liquid,  having  a  strong,  vinegar-like  odor,  a  purely  acid  taste 
and  a  strongly  acid  reaction,  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water  alcohol,  etc 

The  percentage  strength  of   Acetic   Acid  is  not  accurately  disclosed  by  its 


204  TAR. 

specific  gravity,  as  this  varies  irregularly,  but  is  best  determined  by  tne  Volu- 
metric Solution  of  Potassium  Hydrate.      [See  U.  S.  Ph.] 

Dilute  Acetic  Acid. — Acidum  Aceticum  Dilutum,  U.  S. — A  liquid 
containing  6  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute  acid.  Prepared  by  mix- 
ing 100  Gm.  of  the  official  Acid  with  Distilled  water  to  make  600 
Gm.;  sp.  gr.  1.008. 

This  is  used  as  a  menstruum  for  the  official  Vinegars. 

Glacial  Acetic  Acid. — Acidum  Aceticum  Glaciale,  U.  S. — Nearly  or 
quite  absolute  acid,  99  per  cent;  sp.  gr  1.058. 

Liquid  at  ordinary  temperature  but  becoming  a  crystalline  mass  below  I5°C. 
Commercial  Acetic  Acid,  or  "No.  8,"  contains  about  28  per  cent  of  acid.  It 
possesses  a  disagreeable  empyreumatic  odor  and  taste,  which  unfits  it  for  medi- 
cinal purposes. 

Tar. — Fix  Liquida,  U.  S. — Product  of  the  destructive  distillation 
of  the  wood  of  various  species  of  Pine.  Mainly  produced  in  North 
Carolina. 

Blackish-brown,  thick  semi-fluid,  odor  empyreumatic  and  terebinthinate; 
taste  bitter,  empyreumatic,  and  somewhat  acrid;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
chloroform,  solutions  of  soda  and  potash,  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  and  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water. 

Composition. — Very  complex  and  somewhat  variable,  consisting  of  the  end- 
products  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  as  already  stated,  including 
creosote,  phenol,  naphthalin,  etc.,  associated  with  resin. 

Uses. — Stimulant  and  irritant.  Given  internally,  and  used  also  externally  io 
ointments  and  plasters,  and  for  fumigations. 

Off.  Prep. — Syrupus  Picis  Liquidae;  Unguentum  Picis  Liquidae. 

Oil  of  Tar. — Oleum  Picis  Liquidae,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  distillation  of  Tar, 
and 

Oil  of  Cade. — Oleum  Cadinum,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  destructive  distillation  of 
Juniper  wood;  are  considered  among  the  empyreumatic  volatile  oils. 

Creosote. — Creosotum,  U.  S. — A  mixture  of  several  substances 
belonging  to  the  class  known  as  Phenols,  obtained  by  distillation  of 
wood-tar,  preferably  that  from  Beech,  with  a  boiling  point  above 
2oo°C.,  consisting  chiefly  of  Guaiacol,  C7H8O2  and  Creosol,  C8H10O.? 
The  distillate  from  tar  separates  into  two  layers,  the  heavier  portion 
is  freed  from  impurities  by  treating  it  alternately  with  caustic  potash 
and  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  portion  boiling  over  2O5°C.  separated  by 
fractional  distillation. 

An  almost  colorless  oily  liquid,  becoming  darker  with  age  and  upon  ex- 
posure, of  a  penetrating,  smoky  odor  and  burning,  caustic  taste.  Boils  above 
205  C,  becomes  gelatinous  but  does  not  soHdify  at  the  freezing  point  (difference 
from  Carbolic  Acid).  It  is  inflammable,  burning  with  a  smoky  flame  and 
coagulates  the  albumen  of  the  skin,  thereby  producing  a  white  stain  when  ap- 
plied to  it. 


CREOSOTE.  205 

It  is  of  almost  neutral  reaction,  sp.  gr.  about  1.070.  Soluble  in  150  parts  of 
water,  in  somewhat  less  of  hot  water,  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform,  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  benzin  and  carbon  disulphide. 

Creosote  is  largely  adulterated  with  Carbolic  Acid,  from  which  it 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  above  physical  properties  and  also 
certain  tests  noted  under  the  latter. 

Uses. — To  deaden  pain  and  preserve  tissue  as  an  application  in  tooth-ache. 
Internally  to  allay  nausea  and  in  larger  doses,  i  C.C.  per  day,  in  solution  in  a 
fixed  oil  as  a  remedy  in  consumption  and  lung  diseases. 

Off.Prep. — Aqua  Creosoti,  a  saturated  solution. 


Coal-Tar  Products. 

By  the  destructive  distillation  of  Coal,  as  in  the  burning  of  Coal  in 
Gas-works,  a  series  of  compounds  quite  similar  to  those  derived  from 
wood  are  obtained.  First,  the  gases  which  furnish  the  illuminating 
gas,  Hydrogen,  and  its  Carbon  Compounds  known  as  the  Marsh  Gas, 
CH4,  Series.  Second,  Liquids  which  comprise  the  Hydrocarbons, 
Benzol  or  Benzene  or  "Coal-tar  benzin,"  Toluol,  etc.;  the  acid  con- 
stituents, Phenol,  Cresol,  etc.,  and  a  great  variety  of  bases  of  the 
Ammonia  type.  Third,  solids,  Naphthalin,  etc.,  and  finally,  fourth, 
the  residue,  Coke. 

Of  all  of  these  substances  only  a  few  are  official,  although  from 
nearly  all  of  them  valuable  chemical  and  medicinal  agents  are  ob- 
tained. 

Carbolic  Acid.  —  CfiH.OH.  —  Aciclum  Carbolicum,  U.  S. — This  is 
aot  an  acid  but  chemically  a  Phenol  and  this  its  correct  chemical 
name.  Obtained  by  distilling  that  portion  of  coal-tar  known  as  "dead 
oil,"  and  collecting  what  comes  over  between  the  temperatures  of 
i5o°C.  and  2oo°C.  After  two  rectifications  this  constitutes  the  crude 
Carbolic  Acid  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  a  mixture  of  cresol  and  phenol. 

The  crude  acid  is  treated  with  Caustic  Potash,  the  crystals  of  carbolate  of 
potassa  are  heated  to  170  C.  to  char  organic  impurities,  dissolved  in  water  and 
the  acid  is  set  free,  by  S'ipersaturation  with  Hydrochloric  Acid,  as  an  oily 
liquid.  This  is  freed  from  water  and  finally  obtained  in  crystals  by  condens- 
ing the  distillate  at  the  freezing  point.  Colorless,  acicular  crystals,  or  a  crys- 
talline mass,  usually  acquiring  a  reddish  tint,  having  an  aromatic  odor  and  a 
sweetish,  burning  taste.  Soluble  in  15  parts  of  water,  very  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform,  benzol,  carbon  disulphide,  fixed  and  volatile  oils.  Soluble  in 
glycerin,  but  almost  insoluble  in  benzin  (difference  from  creosote). 

Carbolic  acid  resembles  creosote  in  its  odor,  in  its  caustic  properties,  in  its 
antiseptic  power,  and  in  many  of  its  uses,  but  differs  from  it  in  chemical  com- 
position, in  being  a  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  in  having  a  lower  boiling 
point,  in  its  power  to  coagulate  collodion  when  mixed  with  it,  and  in  its  far 
greater  solubility  in  water. 

Carbolic  acid  will  remain  permanently  liquid  if  the  crystals  be  melted  by  im- 
mersing the  containing  bottle  in  hot  water,  and  then  mixing  water  with  the 
liquefied  crystals  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  former  to  nineteen  of  the 
latter.  By  using  alcohol,  instead  of  water,  solution  may  be  effected  without  the 
use  of  heat  by  simply  placing  the  containing  vessel  "upside  down,"  after  the 
aJcohol  has  been  added. 

Uses. — The    most    important    uses  of    carbolic     acid    are   as    a  disinfectant 


PHENOL  DERIVATIVES.  207 

and  antiseptic  As  a  dressing,  carbolic  acid  is  usually  applied  in  the  form  of 
carbolated  oil,  or  petrolatum.  The  lotion  is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  part  of 
the  acid  in  thirty  of  hot  water.  For  internal  administration,  only  the  purest 
kinds  should  be  dispensed.  The  dose  is  about  0.06  (i  grain)  largely  diluted. 

Off.  Preps. — Unguentum  Aricli  Carbol.;    Glyceritum  Acid.  Carbol. 

Care  must  be  observed  to  distinguish  between:  The  Solution 
of  Carbolic  Acid,  a  saturated  solution,  made  by  dissolving  5  per  cent  of 
the  acid  in  water,  and  the  liquefied  Carbolic  Acid,  prepared  by  me 
addition  of  5  per  cent  of  water  or  alcohol,  to  the  crystallized  acid. 

Salicylic  Acid. — HC,HrO... — Acidum  Salicvlicum.  U.  S. — A  mono- 

./  7       j      .i 

basic  acid  existing  naturally  as  Methyl  Salicylate  in  Oil  of  Gaultheria, 
but  made  chiefly  synthetically  from  Carbolic  Acid. 

It  may  be  obtained  by  heating  Oil  of  Caultheria  with  Potassa  until 
the  liberated  Methyl  Alcohol  is  volatilized  and  decomposing  the  Potas- 
sium Salicylate  thus  formed  with  Hydrochloric  Acid,  which  separates 
the  Salicylic  Acid  in  the  form  of  crystals. 

Commercially  Salicylic  Acid  is  made  by  treating  Carbolic  Acid 
with  Sodium  Carbonate  and  subjecting  the  Sodium  Phenolate  so 
formed  to  Carbon  Dioxide,  by  which  it  is  converted  into  Sodium 
Salicylate  and  decomposing  this  by  Hydrochloric  Acid,  which  sets  the 
Salicylic  Acid  free. 

Colorless,  needle-shaped  crystals,  acid  and  slightly  acrid  to  the  taste;  melting 
at  i56°C.,  sublimes  unaltered  if  carefully  heated  to  200  C.  Soluble  in  450 
parts  of  water,  in  2.4  parts  of  alcohol,  in  2  parts  ether  and  in  So  parts  chloroform. 
Salicylic  acid  should  be  free  from  the  odor  of  carbolic  acid,  and  its  solution 
in  cold  sulpnuric  acid  should  be  colorless,  or  have  only  a  slightly  yellow  color, 
showing  the  absence  of  organic  impurities. 

Uses. — Salicylic  acid  and  its  compounds,  particularly  the  Salicylate  of  Sodium, 
are  extensively  used  and  of  great  value  in  acute  articular  rheumatism.  The 
acid  is  also  of  much  value  as  an  antiseptic  and  preventive  of  fermentation. 

Su/pho-Carbolic  Addis  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  Carbolic  Acid  and  Sul- 
phuric Acid.  It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  and  furnishes  several  salts. 

Sakl,  U.  S. — Phenyl  Salicylate. — Is  a  compound  of  Phenol  and  Salicylic 
Acid.  A  white  powder  of  faint  aromatic  odor,  almost  insoluble  in  water,  soluble 
in  10  parts  alcohol,  very  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  fixed  and  volatile  oils. 

[~si-s. — Chiefly  as  a  remedy  in  rheumatism,  dose  i  Gm. 

riicnacctin. — By  action  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Phenol.      A  crystalline  powder, 
almost  insoluble  in  water  (1500),  soluble  in  iG  parts  alcohol. 
Uses. — Antipyretic  and  antiseptic,  dose  0.3  to  :  Gm. 

Benzol. — HC.HV  —  Benzene. — Phenyl  Hydride.  — Obtained  from 
coal-tar  by  fractional  distillation. 

A  colorless  liquid  boiling  at  So  C.,  sp.  gr.  0.878.  A  great  solvent  for  fa., 
wax,  resin,  etc. 


208  BENZOL   AND   PETROLEUM   DERIVATIVES. 

From  Benzene  a  great  many  substances  are  produced,  among  which 
the  following  are  the  most  important: 

Nitro  Benzene. — C6H5NO2. — Oil  Mirbane. 

Anilin. — C6H5NH2. — Phenylamine,  "anilin  oil." 

Acetanilid.—  C6H5NH.C.,H3O.—  Acetanilidum,  U.  S. 

A  crystalline  powder  soluble  in  194  parts  of  water,  in  5  parts  of  alcohol,  18  of 
ether,  soluble  in  chloroform. 

Uses. — As  an  antipyretic  and  analgesic;  dose  0.3  to  0.6  Gm. 

Resorcin. — C6H4(OH)2. — Resorcinum,  U.  S. 

Faintly  reddish  crystals,  very  soluble  in  alcohol  and  water. 

L'scs. — As  a  non-poisonous  antiseptic. 

Naphtalin. — Cl0Hg. — Naphtalinum,  U.  S. — Obtained  as  an  end- 
product  in  the  fractional  distillation  of  coal-tar. 

Crystalline  plates  insoluble  in  water.  Soluble  in  15  parts  alcohol,  very  solu- 
ble in  ether,  chloroform,  fixed  and  volatile  oils. 

NaphtoL—  C10H7OH.—  Naphtol,  U.  S.— Beta  Naphtol. 

Buff-colored,  shining  plates,  phenol-like  odor,  almost  insoluble  in  water  (1000), 
very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  etc. 

Uses. — As  antiseptics  and  disinfectants. 

PETROLEUM    DERIVATIVES. 

Petroleum. — Also  kno\vn  as  Coal  Oil,  Rock  Oil,  Stone  Oil,  Seneca 
Oil,  etc.  A  liquid  mixture  of  Hydrocarbons  with  boiling  points  rang- 
ing from  3o°C.  to  30o°C.  and  over.  These  may  be  separated  by  frac- 
tional distillation,  among  which  the  following  are  the  most  important: 

Rhigolene. — C5H12  — Boiling  point  3O°-45°C.,  lightest  liquid  known. 

Benzin. — C6H14. — Boiling  point  5o°-6o'C.,  sp.  gr.  0.67. 

Kerosene,  rectified  petroleum  freed  from  the  preceding. 

At  a  temperature  above  3oo°C.  paraffin  comes  over  in  the  three 
stages  of  physical  form;  liquid,  semi-solid  and  solid,  according  to  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  liquid  Hydrocarbons  and  the  solid  Paraffin, 
which  they  hold  in  solution.  The  product  after  purification  is  official 
in  the  following  forms: 

Petrolatum  Liquidum,  U.  S. — Paraffine  Oil. 

Petrolatum  Molle,  U.  S. — Soft  Petrolatum-Petroleum  Ointment. — 
Melting  point  between  40°  and  45°C.  (io4°F.-ii3°F.).  This  is  the 
product  dispensed  for  Petrolatum,  "Vaselin"  and  "Cosmolin." 

Petrolatum  Spissum,  U.  S. — Hard  Petrolatum. — Melting  point  be- 
tween 45°  and  5i°C.  (u^°F.-i25°F.). 

Uses. — As  vehicles  for  external  medication.  Not  absorbable  and  should  not 
be  used  instead  of  vegetable  and  animal  fats,  when  medicinal  action  other  than 
that  exerted  on  the  skin  surface  is  required. 

Paraffin,  a  wax-like  substance  is  the  end-product,  and  asphalt  or  bitumen 
the  final  residue. 


The  Carbo-Hydrates. 

The  carbo-hydrates  include  the  Starches,  Sugars  and  Gums;  cellulose 
and  lignin  being  also  sometimes  classed  with  these. 

They  are  closely  related  chemically,  and  agree  in  containing  the 
Hydrogen  and  Oxygen  in  the  same  proportion  in  which  these  elements 
occur  in  the  water-molecule,  that  is  twice  as  much  Hydrogen  as  Oxy- 
gen. 

In  the  processes  of  vegetable  life,  all  other  substances  appear  to  be 
produced  either  directly  or  indirectly  from  starch. 

STARCHES. 

Starch  appears  to  be  the  first  product  of  the  assimilative  process  in 
the  plant,  and  is  made  directly  from  Water  and  Carbon  Dioxide  by 
the  agency  of  chlorophyl  and  sunlight.  It  first  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  chlorophyl  bodies,  where,  by  means  of  a  good  microscope, 
aided  by  appropriate  tests,  it  may  be  discovered;  it  then  passes  into 
some  soluble  form,  as  glucose,  dextrin,  or  some  other  of  the  many 
forms  of  sugar,  and  is  carried  in  the  sap  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  either  again  stored  up  as  starch  in  the  roots,  seeds,  etc.,  or 
converted  into  fixed  oils  for  the  future  uses  of  the  plant,  or  it  is  formed 
into  cellulose,  lignin,  suberin,  gum,  or,  by  reactions  with  nitrates  or 
ammonia  compounds  and  sulphates,  it  is  converted  into  proteid  com- 
pounds. 

Starch  is,  in  other  words,  the  formative  material  of  the  plant,  from 
which,  in  the  long  run,  all  its  tissues  are  built  up. 

It  usually  exists  in  the  cells  in  the  form  of  minute  granules,  in  seeds,  in  roots 
and  in  the  pith  of  some  plants,  as  the  Sago  Palm  also,  in  the  leaves,  bark,  and 
even  wood.  The  granules  differ  widely  in  shape  and  size,  often  so  character- 
istic of  certain  species  of  plants  that  their  source  may  be  determined  by  micro- 
scopical examination.  Usually  the  grains  possess  a  nucleus  or  hi  linn  which  is 
sometimes  centrally  and  sometimes  excentrically  located,  and  around  this 
nucleus  concentric  markings  are  frequently  seen. 

The  starch  grain  is  composed  of  about  95  per  cent  gramtlssc  and  about  5  per 
cent  starch  cellulose,  By  digestion  with  saliva  at  38  C.,  the  granulose  dissolves, 
leaving  a  perfect  skeleton  of  the  grain  in  starch  cellulose,  which  acquires  a  yel- 
lowish coloration  with  Iodine  while  the  granulose  is  stained  a  deep  violet  color. 

Starch. — Amylum,  U.  S. — The  ferula  of  the  seed  of  /ea  Mays.  L., 
Indian  Corn.  It  has  the  chemical  formula  C.H.. O-  or  some  multiple 

0         i'J        •"* 


210  STARCHES. 

of  this.  The  Starch  is  obtained  by  reducing  the  grain  to  coarse 
powder  and  washing  with  water  to  free  the  starch-grains  from  the 
seed  coating  and  other  adhering  substances.  After  thoroughly  wash- 
ing, the  starch  is  collected  and  dried. 

In  irregular  masses  or  fine  white  powder,  inodorous,  tasteless,  insoluble  in 
neutral  solvents  but  when  boiled  with  water  yields  a  white  jelly  with  a  bluish 
tinge.  Owing  to  its  staining  effect,  iodine  is  the  best  reagent  for  detecting  the 
presence  of  starch. 

Off.  Prep. — Glyceritum  Amyli,  containing  10  per  cent. 
A  large  number  of  isomers  of  starch  are  known,  among   the  more 
important  of  which  are  Dextrin,  Lichenin,  Inulin  and  Glycogen. 

Dextrin  is  soluble  in  water,  and  does  not  react  with  iodine  to  produce  a  vio- 
let color.  As  found  in  the  plant  it  probably  represents  transition  stages  in  the 
process  of  change  from  starch  to  the  sugars.  It  may  be  produced  artificially 
by  heating  starch  paste  to  a  temperature  of  26o°C.  Also  by  the  action  of 
Oxalic  Acid,  Nitric  Acid,  or  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Starch.  Its  solution  is  largely 
used  as  a  mucilage. 

Lichenin  is  the  peculiar  form  of  starch  which  is  found  in  Iceland  moss.  It  is 
soluble  in  hot  water,  but  is  precipitated  from  it  again  as  a  gelatinous  mass  on 
cooling. 

Jnulin  replaces  starch  in  the  roots  of  Inula,  Taraxacum,  Cichorium,  and 
other  Compositas.  In  its  properties  it  stands  between  starch  and  sugar.  It  is 
slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  freely  so  in  hot,  and  is  soluble  in  absolute  alco- 
hol. It  is  not  colored  blue  by  iodine,  and  is  very  hygroscopic. 

Lcfvnlin  is  found  associated  with  inulin  in  some  of  the  Compositae,  and  with 
ordinary  starch  in  the  young  grain  of  Rye.  It  is  amorphous,  and  deliquescent, 
and  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol. 

Glycogen  is  the  peculiar  form  of  starch  found  in  the  liver  of  man  and  many 
other  animals.  It  is  an  amorphous  white  powder,  soluble  in  water,  and  its 
aqueous  solution  is  colored  wine-red  by  iodine. 

These  starches  form  a  group  called  the  Amylum  Group.  They  are 
all  transformed  by  the  action  of  acids  into  glucoses. 

STARCH  DRUGS  OR  STARCHES. 

Arrow  Root. — Maranta. — The  Starch  prepared  from  the  root  of 
Maranta  arundinacese. 

Canna. — From  the  rhizome  of  Canna  edulis. 

Cassava. — Brazilian  Arrow  Root,  Tapioca  meal,  from  the  root  of  Manihot 
utilissima. 

Tapioca. — From  the  above  by  drying  on  iron  plates. 
Sago. — The  pith  of  Metroxylon  Sagu,  granulated  and  dried. 
Rice  Starch. — Amylum  Oryzae. — From  the  seed  of  Oryza  sativa. 
Wheat  Starch. — Amylum  Tritici.  — From  the  seed  of  Triticum  vulgare. 


SUGARS.  211 

SUGARS. 

The  Sugar  Group  consists  of  compounds  closely  related  to  the 
starches,  but  they  are  crystalline,  sweet  or  sweetish  to  the  taste,  and 
more  or  less  soluble  in  water.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  Saccharoses  and  Glucoses. 

The  Saccharoses,  of  which  common  cane  sugar  is  the  type,  have  the 
formula  C12H,2On.      The  principal  members  of  the  group  are: 
Cane  sugar,  Milk  sugar,  Maltose. 

Mclitose,  Trehalose,  Melezitose, 

They  are  all  characterized,  optically,  by  deviating  the  plane  of 
polari/.ed  light  to  the  right,  and  chemically  by  being  convertible  by 
boiling  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  into  glucoses.  They  differ  also  from 
the  glucoses  in  not  being  directly  fermentable. 

CANE    SUGAR. 

Cane  sugar,  the  most  important  member  of  the  group,  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  its  principal  commercial 
sources  are  the  Sugar  Cane,  the  Sugar  Beet,  certain  of  the  Palms,  and 
the  Sugar  Maple.  The  sugar  is  contained  in  solution  in  the  sap  of 
these  plants. 

The  process  of  obtaining  it  from  the  sap  varies  with  the  different  sources, 
but  consists  essentially  in  the  following: 

(1)  Getting  rid  of  albuminoid  impurities  by  treatment  with  Milk  of   Lime,  or 
some  other  suitable  substance. 

(2)  Concentration  by  evaporation  and    the   separation    of  the  crystalhzable 
from  the  uncrystallizable  portion. 

(3)  Refining  the  crude  crystalline  product    by  dissolving  it,  treating  it  with 
Animal  Charcoal  and  albuminous  substances,  thus   removing  coloring  matters 
and  other  impurities,  then  concentrating  and  crystallizing. 

Si/gar. — Saccharum,  U.  S. — The  refined  sugar  of  Saccharum 
•officinarum,  L. ,  and  from  various  species  or  varieties  of  Sorghum,  also 
from  the  Beta  vulgaris. 

Pure  cane  sugar  crystallizes  in  colorless  crystals  of  sp.  gr.  1.593.  Soluble  in 
one-half  its  weight  of  water,  in  175  parts  alcohol,  in  28  parts  boiling  alco- 
hol, but  insoluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  etc.  Its  melting  point  is  about  160  C. ; 
when  heated  to  a  higher  temperature  it  gradually  undergoes  change,  and  is 
converted  into  Caramel.  More  strongly  heated,  the  caramel  is  decomposed,  and 
a  mass  of  porous  charcoal  is  left  behind. 

Many  compounds  of  sugar,  with  b^.ses,  are  known,  but  only  one,  the  sacchar- 
ate  of  calcium,  is  of  importance  in  pharmacy,  under  the  name  of  Svnifus  Cal' 
fis.  U.  S.  Ph. 

Uses. — For  the  production  of  Syrups,  Elixirs,  and  many  Mixtures  both  solid 
and  liquid.  As  a  preservative,  diluent  and  excipientin  Pill-Masses,  Confections. 
Troches,  etc. 


212  GLUCOSES. 

Eleosacchara,  or  Oil  Sugars,  are  mixtures  of  some  volatile  oil  with  sugar,  I 
drop  to  30  grains,  N.F. 

Other  Saccharoses  are  the  following: 

Milk  Sugar. — Saccharum  Lactis,  U.  S. — Occurs  in  the  milk  of  mammalia, 
particularly  in  cow's  milk.  It  is  prepared  from  whey  by  evaporating  it  to  a 
syrup,  allowing  it  to  stand  and  crystallize,  and  then  purifying  by  decoloration 
and  re-crystallization. 

Crystalline,  less  sweet  to  the  taste  than  cane  sugar,  sp.  gr.  1.534,  soluble  in  6 
parts  of  cold  and  in  i  part  of  boiling  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  ether  or  chlo- 
roform. 

Uses. — Valuable  as  a  diluent  and  as  such  used  for  the  official  class  of  prepa- 
rations, the  Triturations. 

Melezitose  is  a  peculiar  sugar  found  in  certain  mannas,  particularly  Abies 
larix. 

Melitose  forms  the  principal  constituent  of  the  manna  that  exudes  from 
Eucalyptus  manifera  and  some  other  species  of  the  same  genus.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  fine  felted  needles,  which  contain  three  molecules  of  water  of  crys- 
tallization. 

Trehalose,  sometimes  called  mycose,  occurs  in  ergot  of  rye,  in  Agaricus  sul- 
phureus,  and  several  other  fungi. 

Maltose  is  a  peculiar  sugar  obtained  by  treating  starch  paste  with  malt.  It 
crystallizes  in  fine  needles. 

GLUCOSES. 

The  glucoses,  of  which  common  grape-sugar,  or  Dextrose,  is  the 
type,  have  the  formula  CgH12Oti. 

They  differ  from  the  saccharoses  in  being  directly  fermentable,  and  in 
having  the  power  to  reduce  cupric  tartrate  (in  the  alkaline  volumetric 
solution,  known  as  Fehling's)  to  cuprous  oxide;  manifested  by  the 
formation  of  a  brick-red  precipitate  upon  heating  a  mixture  of  these. 
The  more  important  are: 


Dextrose,  or  grape  sugar. 
Levulose,  or  fruit       " 


Galactose. 

Arabinose,  and  Inosite. 


Dextrose,  so-called  because  it  rotates  the  plane  of  polarization  to 
the  right,  is  widely  distributed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  often  oc- 
curring associated  with  cane,  fruit  and  other  sugars.  It  was  first  ob- 
tained from  grapes,  and  hence  is  called  grape-sugar.  It  is  now  manu- 
factured on  a  large  scale  from  Starch,  by  the  action  of  Dilute  Sulphuric 
Acid  upon  it.  The  process  takes  place  in  two  stages:  Dextrin  being 
first  produced,  and  then  afterward,  by  the  continued  action  of  the 
acid  and  heat,  this  is  converted  into  glucose. 

Commercial  liquid  Glucose  is  a  dense  syrup  consisting  of  true  glucose,  mal- 
tose and  dextrin  in  varying  proportions  with  water.  Besides  being  used  some- 
what in  pharmacy  to  increase  the  body  of  syrups  without  producing  a  corre- 


HONEY.  213 

spending  increase  in  sweetness,  it  is  used  extensively  by  brewers  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sparkling  ales,  etc.,  and  in  the  adulteration  of  table  syrups. 

Solid  Glucose  is  in  whitish,  crystalline,  anhydrous  masses,  much  less  sweet 
than  cane  sugar  for  which  it  is  sometimes  substituted. 

Levulose  is  found  associated  with  grape-sugar  in  fruits,  and  is  commonly 
called  fruit-sugar.  It  differs  optically  from  dextrose  or  grape-sugar,  by  rotat- 
ing the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  left  instead  of  the  right.  It  is  a  colorless, 
uncrystallizable  syrup,  and  is  nearly  as  sweet  as  cane  sugar.  It  is  obtained 
from  inulin  by  treating  it  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Galactose  is  a  peculiar  sugar  derived  from  milk  sugar  by  the  action  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.  It  rotates  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right. 

Arabinose  is  a  sugar  obtained  by  boiling  gum  arabic  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
It  differs  but  little  from  galactose. 

Inosite  was  first  found  in  muscles  of  animals,  and  hence  is  called  muscle 
sugar;  but  it  is  now  known  to  occur  also  in  some  plants.  It  is  crystalline, 
sweet,  soluble  in  about  6  parts  of  water,  and  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

Manna. — Manna,  U.  S. — A  sweet  substance  formerly  regarded  as  a 
sugar,  a  concrete  saccharine  exudation  of  Fraxinus  Ornus,  L.,  a 
species  of  Ash  growing  in  Southern  Europe.  In  flattish  pieces, 
friable,  externally  yellowish-white,  internally  white,  porous  and  crys- 
talline, odor  honey-like,  taste  sweet,  slightly  bitter  and  faintly  acrid. 

Mannite  is  prepared  by  dissolving  manna  in  half  its  weight  of  boiling  water, 
clarifying  the  solution  with  white  of  egg,  filtering  it  while  hot  and  crystallizing. 
The  crystals  are  separated  from  the  mother  liquor  by  draining  or  by  pressure, 
dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  treated  with  animal  charcoal,  filtered, 
and  crystallized. 

Uses. — A  gentle  laxative  and  cholagogue;  an  ingredient  in  Infusum  Sennae 
Comp. 

Honey. — Mel,  U.  S. — A  saccharine  secretion  deposited  in  the_ 
honey-comb  by  Apis  mellifica,  L.,  the  Honey  Bee. 

Consisting  of  two  kinds  of  sugar  in  nearly  equal  proportion,  dex- 
trose, the  more  solid  portion  prone  to  granulation  and  levulose,  or 
fruit-sugar,  the  liquid  portion. 

A  syrupy  liquid  of  light-yellowish  color,  translucent  when  fresh,  but  gradu- 
ally becoming  opaque  and  crystalline,  of  an  aromatic  odor  and  a  sweet,  faintly 
acrid  taste. 

Purified  Honev. — Mel  Despumatum,  U.  S. — Honey  in  which  the  impurities 
have  been  removed  by  coagulation  with  heat,  clarification  by  straining  through 
paper  pulp,  and  granulation  prevented  by  the  addition  of  5  per  cent  of  Glycerin. 

Uses. — As  an  excipient  in  masses  and  confections. 

Off.  Prep. — Mel  Ross,  containing  10  per  cent  of  Rose. 


2i4  GUMS. 

GUMS. 

The  Gums  are  bodies  closely  related  in  their  chemical  structure  to 
starch  and  cellulose,  CSH,()O5,  some  containing  an  additional  mole- 
cule of  water.  They  are  common  vegetable  products. 

Exuding  from  many  plants  when  the  bark  is  punctured,  they  appear 
to  perform  the  function  of  plugging  up  the  wounded  vessels  and 
facilitating  the  healing  process.  These  are  produced,  mostly  at  least, 
by  the  transformation  of  the  cellulose  or  the  substance  of  the  cell- 
walls  of  plants. 

Some  are  soluble  in  water,  others  only  swell  up  but  do  not  properly 
dissolve,  and  by  reason  of  this  difference  they  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups,  only  one  representative  of  each,  however,  being  official: 

Acacia. — Acacia,  U.  S. — Gum  Arabic. — A  gummy  exudation  de- 
rived from  Acacia  Senegal.  The  greatest  portion  of  a  good  quality  of 
gum  arabic  consists  of  arabin  or  arabic  acid,  which  may  be  prepared 
from  the  aqueous  solution  of  the  gum  by  acidulating  it  with  chlor- 
hydric  acid  and  adding  alcohol. 

In  roundish  tears  or  angular  fragments  with  a  glass-like  fracture,  nearly  in- 
odorous, taste  pleasantly  acid,  slowly  soluble  in  2  parts  of  water,  forming  a 
thick,  viscid  solution  or  mucilage;  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Its  solution  is  coagu- 
lated by  borax  and  also  by  lead  subacetate  solution  into  a  light-yellow  mass, 
and  by  ferric  chloride  into  a  reddish  jelly;  boiled  for  some  time  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  it  is  converted  into  glucose. 

I'st's. — It  is  employed  extensively  in  the  arts  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  as  in 
the  manufacture  of  mucilage,  in  the  preparation  of  water-colors,  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  ink,  in  order  to  hold  in  suspension  the  fine  particles  of  tannate  of 
iron;  and  in  pharmacy  it  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  emulsions,  pill-masses, 
pastes,  syrups,  etc. 

Off.  Prep. — Mucilago  Acaciae,  containing  34  per  cent  by  weight; 
Mist.  Glycyrrh.  Comp.;  Syrupus  Acacice  and  the  powdered  in  Pulvis 
Crete  ComposituSj  Emulsions,  Troches,  Pills,  etc.,  as  an  excipient. 

Tragacanth. — Tragacantha,  U.  S. — Gum  Tragacanth. — An  exuda- 
tion from  the  stem  of  Astragalus  gummifer  and  other  species  of  Astra- 
galus. It  consists  largely  of  bassorin,  which  swells  up  but  does  not 
dissolve  in  water  and  is  tinged  blue  by  iodine. 

In  bands  more  or  less  curved,  translucent,  tough,  rendered  friable  by  heat. 

C.tt'.f. — The  Mucilage  without  the  addition  of  glycerin  as  a  paste,  the 
Glycerite  as  an  excipient.  and  the  powder  as  a  "binding  medium"  in  many 
Mixture's  and  as  an  Emulsifying  agent. 

Off.  J'rcp.       Mucilago  Tragacanthse,  containing  6  per  cent. 
Ci-rasin,  foiind  in  the   gummy  exudation    from   cherry  trees,  resem- 
bles tragacanth  in  its  properties. 


Drugs  of  Group  I. 


In  this  group  will  be  included  Drugs  which  owe  their  value  chiefly 
to  Starch,  Sugar  or  Gum. 

Barley. — Hordei  Fructus. — The  seed  of  Hordeum  distichum  ,  L. 
Constituents:  Starch,  Gluten,  etc.  For  preparing  demulcent  drinks. 

Malt. — Mai  turn. — Seed  of  Hordeum  distichum,  Linne,  caused  to 
begin  germination  and  then  dried.  Constituents:  Dextiin,  diastase, 
sugar,  starch,  etc.  Preparation:  Extractum  Malti. 

Diastase,  a  peculiar  ferment,  during  the  process  of  malting  converts  part 
of  the  starch  into  dextrin  and  sugar,  and  subsequently  when  the  malt  is 
"mashed,"  in  brewing  and  in  preparing  malt  extract,  all  the  starch  is  converted 
into  these  compounds  by  the  action  of  the  diastase,  which  sets  in  at  a  certain 
temperature.  Diastase  is  destroyed  at  a  high  temperature,  hence  the  necessity 
of  not  exceeding  yo"C.  in  the  process  of  conversion. 

Oat  Meal. — A  venae  Farina. — The  grain  of  Avena  sativa,  L. ,  ground 
into  a  meal.  Used  for  dietetic  purposes,  gruel,  etc. 

SACCHARINE    DRUGS. 

Corn  Silk- — Zea,  U.  3. — The  styles  and  stigmas  of  Zea  Mays, 
Linne,  Indian  Corn.  Constituents:  Sugar,  fixed  oil,  resin,  tannin 
and  an  acid.  Off.  Prep. :  Ext.  Fl. 

Fig. — Ficus,  U.  S. — The  fruit  of  Ficus  Carica,  Linne.  Constitu- 
ents: Sugar,  gum,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Confectio  Sennae. 

Prune. — Prunum,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Primus  domestica,  Linne.  Con- 
stituents: Sugar,  pectin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Confectio  Sennae. 

Triticum. — Triticum,  U.  S. — Couch  Grass.  —  Rhizome  of  Triticum 
repens,  Linne.  Constituents:  Sugars,  triticin  (similar  to  inulin). 
Off.  Prep.:  Ext.  Fl. 

MUCILAGINOUS    DRUGS. 

Some  of  these  drugs  also  contain  a  valuable  fixed  oil. 

Sweet  ^/W6>//</.— Amygdala  dulcis,  U.  S. — Seeds  of  Prmv.is  Amyg- 
dalus,  var.  dulcis,  l)e  Candolle.  Constituents:  Fixed  oil  about"  50 
per  cent,  mucilage,  sugar,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Emulsum  Amygdala?: 
Syrupus  Amygdala;. 

L'si's. — For  obtaining  Oleum  Amygdalae  Express.:  Emulsion,  used  as  a 
vehicle  for  other  substances;  and  as  Hour  or  paste  for  cosmetic  preparations. 

AltJuea. — Althaea,  U.  S. — Marshmallow. — Root  of  Altruva  ortiri- 
nalis,  Linne.  Constituents:  Starch  37  percent,  mucilage,  asparagin, 
etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Syrupus  Althcese. 


216  MUCILAGINOUS   DRUGS. 

Uses. — Owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  starch  it  contains,  preparations  of 
althaea  must  always  be  prepared  without  the  use  of  heat  in  the  extraction  (see 
infusion),  The  root  occurs  in  commerce  in  the  form  of  small  cubes,  and  as 
such  is  largely  used  as  an  ingredient  in  Species  Pectorales  P.  Ger. ;  also  for 
preparing  a  demulcent  drink.  The  powder,  owing  to  its  absorbing  qualities,  is 
largely  used  in  pill-masses. 

Cetraria. — Cetraria,  U.  S. — Iceland  Moss. — Entire  plant  of  Cetra- 
ria  Islandica,  Acharius.  Constituents:  Lichenin  or  lichen  starch,  70 
per  cent,  cetraric  acid,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Decoctum  Cetrariae. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  Iceland  moss  jelly,  it  is  desirable  to  free  the 
moss  from  the  cetraric  acid,  to  which  the  bitter  taste  is  due,  by  macerating  it 
in  tepid  water  for  half  an  hour,  expressing  the  liquid  which  is  rejected;  and 
then  exhausting  the  moss  by  boiling  water,  and  straining.  To  the  strained 
liquid  sugar  is  added,  and  the  mixture  evaporated  to  jelly  consistence. 

Chondrus. — Chondrus,  U.  S. — Irish  Moss. — Plant  of  Chondrus 
crispus,  Stackhouse.  Gigartina  mamillosa,  Greville.  Constituents: 
Mucilage,  and  traces  of  iodides,  bromides,  sulphates.  Does  not  con- 
tain starch. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  the  form  of  a  mucilage  as  an  emulsifying  agent.  The 
decoction  of  Irish  moss  and  Carrageen  jelly  are  both  prepared  similarly  to  those 
from  cetraria. 

Cydonium. — Cydonium. — Quince  seed,  Seed  of  Cydonia  vulgaris, 
Persoon.  Constituents:  Mucilage.  Prep. :  Mucilago  Cydonii. 

Uses. — Mostly  as  a  demulcent  in  the  form  of  mucilage.  Also  largely  as  a 
hair  dressing;  the  mucilage  having  but  little  adhesive  power  renders  it  some- 
times preferable  to  tragacanth  for  that  purpose. 

Elm. — Ulmus,  U.  S. — Slippery  Elm. — Inner  bark  of  Ulmus  fulva, 
Michaux.  Constituents:  Mucilage.  Off.  Prep.:  Mucilago  Ulmi. 

Uses. — Somewhat  as  a  demulcent,  but  chiefly  for  poultices,  when  it  should  be 
coarsely  ground  so  that  the  mass  will  adhere  together  when  moistened  with 
water. 

Flax  Seed. — Linum,  U.  S. — Seeds  of  Linum  usitatissimum,  Linne. 
Constituents:  Mucilage,  fixed  oil  about  40  per  cent. 

Uses. — Ground  flaxseed,  "Lini  Farina,"  for  poultices.  When  deprived  of 
oil,  it  is  termed  "oil  cake,"  which  is  said  to  make  an  excellent  cataplasm. 
From  the  whole  seeds  "flaxseed  tea"  is  prepared,  and  with  the  addition  of 
liquorice  and  a  little  lemon  juice,  furnishes  a  refreshing  draught. 

Sassafras  Pith. — Sassafras  medulla,  U.  S. — Pith  of  Sassafras  varii- 
folium,  Kunze.  Constituents:  Mucilage.  Off.  Prep.:  Mucilago 
Sassafras. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  Jackson's  Pectoral  Syrup;  for  collyria,  and  as  a 
vehicle  for  more  active  remedies. 


Products  by    Fermentation. 

Starch  and  its  derivatives,  Albumen,  etc.,  subjected  to  the  effect  of 
heat  and  water,  in  the  presence  of  bodies  called  ferments  undergo  cer- 
tain transformations  by  which  their  physical,  as  well  as  chemical, 
characters  are  more  or  less  completely  changed. 

These  so-called  Ferments  may  be  either  organized,  microscopic 
plants,  such  as  the  Torula  Cerevisice,  the  common  "Yeast  plant;"  the 
Mycoderma  aceti,  the  "Vinegar  plant;"  or  they  may  be  simply  nitro- 
ge nized  or  albuminoid  substances,  such  as  Diastase  from  Malted  Grain 
or  Pepsin  and  Pancrcatin  derived  from  Animals. 

Since  there  are  different  Ferments,  so  there  are  also  different  kinds  of  Fer- 
mentations, viz. :  The  saccharine  fermentation,  in  which  Starch  or  Sugar  is  con- 
verted into  glucose;  the  alcoholic  or  "vinous"  fermentation,  by  which  Glucose  is 
converted  into  Alcohol,  and  the  Acetic  fermentation,  by  which  Alcohol  is  con- 
verted first  into  Aldehyde  and  afterward  into  Acetic  Acid. 

There  are,  besides,  the  lactic,  butyric  and  other  kinds  of  Fermentation,  not  to 
mention  the  more  complex  bodies,  such  as  Emiilsin,  that  produce  so  many 
wonderful  phenomena  in  both  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

The  Alcoholic  fermentation  is  of  the  greatest  pharmaceutical  interest 
and  will  be  here  considered. 

THE  ALCOHOLIC  FERMENTATION. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  Starch,  in  the  form  of  Corn  or  other 
grain,  may  be  converted  into  glucose  by  heat  and  other  agencies. 
Glucose  differs  from  the  other  kind  of  sugar,  saccharose,  chiefly  in 
that  it  is  directly  fermentable.  When,  therefore,  a  ferment  is  added 
to  glucose  it  is  broken  up  into  carbon  dioxide  and  Alcohol,  which 
may  be  obtained  in  a  more  or  less  pure  form  by  distillation. 

The  steps  in  the  process  are  as  follows: 

The  grain,  after  being  ground  to  a  meal,  is  macerated  with  water  at  88  C., 
known  as  the  operation  of  "mashing,  '  through  which  the  Starch  is  changed  into 
a  soluble  form,  dextrose,  etc.,  or  maltose.  Upon  the  addition  of  Malted  Barley 
or  Rye,  the  Maltose,  at  a  temperature  of  6o°C.,  is  converted  by  the  Diastase  into 
glucose. 

To  this  liquid,  cooled  to  iS°C.,  Yeast  is  added,  when  the  Glucose  is  broken 
up  into  Carbon  Dioxide,  which  escapes,  and  Alcohol  remaining  in  the  liquid. 

Other  products  are  also  formed  at  the  same  time,  being  chiefly  alcohols  of 
different  chemical  composition,  such  as  Amylic  Alcohol  or  Fusel  Oil  2nd 
Propenvl  Alcohol  or  Glycerin. 

These  latter  are  much  less  volatile,  that  is,  have  a  much  higher  boiling 
point,  than  the  ordinary  alcohol,  and  therefore  are  largely  left  behind  when 
the  liquid  is  distilled  in  order  to  obtain  the  Alcohol  in  a  pure  form. 


2i8  ALCOHOL. 

FORMS    OF    ALCOHOL. 

In  the  operation  of  recovering  the  Alcohol  by  distillation  it  may  be 
obtained  in  various  degrees  of  strength  and  purity. 

High  Wine  or  "Crude  Whisky"  is  the  first  distillate  obtained,  con- 
taining alcohol  and  water  in  nearly  equal  proportions.  Its  strength  is 
designated  by  the  number  of  degrees  proof  by  the  U.  S.  Internal 
Revenue  Bureau;  two  degrees  proof  being  equal  to  one  per  cent  by 
volume  of  Absolute  Alcohol. 

Thus  an  alcohol  of  equal  parts  by  volume  of  Absolute  Alcohol  and  Water,  at 
a  temperature  of  i5.667"C.  (6o°F. )  is  100  proof,  and  on  this  the  tax  to  be  paid 
is$i.io  for  one  U.  S.  Wine  Gallon.  An  alcohol  188°  proof  contains,  there- 
fore, 94  per  cent  absolute  alcohol,  by  volume. 

The  strength  of  alcohol  is  best  determined  by  a  Custom  House  alcoholometer 
and  may  readily  be  transcalculated  into  percentage  by  weight  or  specific 
gravity  by  reference  to  the  alcohol  Tables,  p.  531,  U.  S.  Ph.  For  the  simplest 
method  of  reducing  or  increasing  the  strength  of  alcohol  of  various  percentages, 
refer  to  rules  U.  S.  Ph.,  p.  30. 

Alcohol. — Alcohol,  U.  S. — A  liquid  composed  of  about  91  per  cent 
by  weight,  or  94  per  cent  by  volume,  of  Ethyl  Alcohol,  C2H.OH, 
and  about  9  per  cent  by  weight,  or  6  per  cent  by  volume  of  Water; 
sp.gr.  at  i5°C.  0.820. 

Obtained  by  fractional  distillation  from  high  wine  or  by  direct  dis- 
tillation, separation  of  most  of  the  water  being  effected  by  the  use  of 
upright  or  column  condensers. 

A  transparent,  colorless,  mobile  liquid  of  a  characteristic  agreeable  odor  and 
a  burning  taste.  Miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water,  ether  and  chloroform. 
A  ready  solvent  for  most  of  the  volatile  oils,  camphors,  etc.,  resins  and  a  great 
variety  of  organic  and  many  inorganic  compounds.  Does  not  dissolve  nor  mix 
with  fixed  oils  or  fats  with  a  few  exceptions.  It  boils  at  78  C.,  is  very  in- 
flammable, burning  with  a  blue  flame.  Organic  impurities  are  detected  through 
coloration  with  silver  nitrate  solution.  Alcohol  should  be  kept  in  well-closed 
vessels  remote  from  light  or  fire. 

Uses. — As  the  most  valuable  and  largely  employed  solvent,  next  to  water;  for 
preparing  the  three  other  official  forms  of  alcohol  and  for  producing  many 
chemical  compounds. 

J)ilute  Alcohol. — -Alcohol  Dilutum.  U.  S. — A  liquid  composed  of 
about  41  percent  by  weight  (48.6^  vol.)  of  Absolute  Alcohol  and 
59  per  cent  by  weight  of  Water;  sp.  gr.  at  i5°C.  0.936.  Prepared  by 
mixing  equal  volumes  of  Alcohol  and  Distilled  Water. 

In  mixing  alcohol  and  water  a  contraction  occurs,  which  with  equal  volumes 
amounts  to  nearly  3  per  cent  in  the  mixed  liquids. 

Deodorized  AlcoJiol. — Alcohol  Deodoratum,  U.  S. — Cologne  Spirit. 
— Composed  of  92.5  per  cent  by  weight  (95.1/0  vol.)  of  Alcohol 


AMYLIC    ALCOHOL.  219 

and  7.5  per  cent  by  weight  (5%  vol.)  of  Water;  sp.  gr.  at  i5°C.,  o.  816. 
Prepared  from  alcohol  by  filtration  through  animal  charcoal;  rectifica- 
tion from  Potassium  Permanganate  or  other  oxidizing  agents. 

Uses. — Free  from  the  odor  of  "raw"  alcohol  clue  to  fusel  oil  etc.,  this  kind  of 
alcohol  should  he  used  for  Flavoring  and  Perfume  purposes. 

Absolute  A/c-o/u>!.—C\\:()\\.—  Alcohol   Absolutum,    U.    S.— Ethyl 
Alcohol  containing  not  more  than  i  per  cent    by  weight  of  water;  sp. 
gr.  0.800  (0.797)  at    i5°C.      It  is   freed   from  water   by    rectification 
over  Lime. 

It  is  very  hygroscopic  and  must  be  kept  in  tightly  stoppered  boltles  in  a  cool 
place. 

Uses. — As  a  chemical  reagent  and  solvent. 

IVliisky. — Spiritus  Frumenti,  U.  S. — An  alcoholic  liquid  obtained 
by  the  distillation  of  the  mash  of  fermented  grain,  usually  mixtures  of 
Indian  corn,  wheat  and  rye,  and  at  least  two  years  old. 

Its  sp.  gr.  should  not  be  more  than  o  930  nor  less  than  0.917,  corresponding 
to  an  alcoholic  strength  of  44  to  50  per  cent  by  weight  (50-58'^  vol.).  Tne 
distillate  is  colored  by  being  allowed  to  stand  in  casks  or  barrels  for  a  number 
of  years,  during  which  it  undergoes  changes  that  improve  its  quality. 
Whisky  thus  mellowed  by  age  is  called  old  whisky. 

OTHKR    ALCOHOLS. 

Am\l  Alcohol. — C5HnOH.— Or  Fusel  Oil  — Obtained  as  a  by-prod- 
uct in  the  fermentation  of  grain.  As  it  boils  at  a  much  higher  tem- 
perature than  alcohol,  most  of  it  comes  over  as  the  last  product  in  the 
rectification  of  ordinary  alcohol.  Thus  obtained  it  contains  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  ordinary  alcohol,  which  is  separated  by  wash- 
ing it  with  water,  and  then  distilling  over  calcium  chloride. 

A  thin,  oily  liquid,  of  an  oppressive,  penetrating  odor,  and  an  acrid,  hot 
taste,  boils  at  132  C.,  sp.  gr.  0.818.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  and  freely 
so  in  alcohol,  ether  and  benzol. 

•   Uses. — Solvent    for    some    of    the   alkaloids,    source    of   valerianic   acid    and 
of  various  compound  ethers  which  are  used  in  flavoring  and  in  perfumery. 

Propenyl  Alcohol.  —  (C3H5)3HO — Glycerin. — Is  treated  under  Fats- 


Alcohol  Derivatives. 

These  comprise  the  Ethers,  Aldehyde  and  its  derivatives,  Chloral 
tnd  Chloroform. 

THE  ETHERS. 

These  ethers  are  the  products  of  the  action  of  Acids  upon  the 
Alcohols,  and,  as  there  are  series  of  alcohols,  so  there  are  also  of 
ethers. 

They  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  alcohols  that  the  oxides  of  the 
•metals  bear  to  the  hydrates.  For  example: 

(C2H5)HO  is  ethyl  alcohol,  or  ethyl  hydrate,  and  (C2H5)2O  is 
ether  or  ethyl  oxide,  so 

Na(HO)  is  sodium  hydrate,  and  Na2O  is  sodium  oxide. 

Ethers  are  of  various  kinds:  some  simple,  as  ethyl  ether  (C2H5)2O; 
some  haloid,  that  is,  built  on  the  plan  of  a  molecule  of  common  salt, 
as  chlorhydric  ether  (C2H5)  Cl;  some  compound,  as 

,,       C9H, 

acetic  ether  , ,  u V» 
L2H3U 

There  are  also  several  other  kinds,  of  less  pharmaceutical  interest. 

The  common  ethers  are  liquid,  highly  volatile  and  inflammable, 
but  there  are  others  which  are  dense,  non-volatile,  or  even  solid  at 
ordinary  temperatures. 

The  ethers  of  most  importance  in  pharmacy  are: 

o-      ,  (  methyl  oxide,  (CH3).,O,  or  methylic  ether. 

'    (  ethyl  oxide,  (C2H.)26,  or  ethylic  ether. 

{Ethyl  chloride,  (C2H5)C1,  or  chlorhydric  ether. 
"     bromide,  (C2H.)Br,  or  bromhydric  ether. 
"     iodide,  (C2H5)I,  or  iodohydric  ether, 
ethylene  bichloride,  (C2H4)C12,  or  Dutch  liquid. 
i  acetic  ether,  (C,H5)(C2H3O.,),  or  ethyl  acetate. 
Compound    -j  formic    "       (C2H.)(CHO)O,  or  ethyl  formate, 
(nitrous   "        (C2H5)NO2,  or  ethyl  nitrite. 

Ether. — ^Ether,  U.  S. — A  liquid  composed  of  96  per  cent  by 
weight  of  absolute  Ether  or  Ethyl  Oxide  (C2H.)2O  and  about  4  per 
tent  of  Alcohol  containing  a  little  water.  It  is  produced  by  reaction 
upon  Alcohol  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  the  Ether  being  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation. The  name  "Sulphuric  Ether"  was  given  to  it  erroneously. 

A  colorless,  transparent,  highly  refractive,  volatile  and  inflammable  liquid, 
of  a  pleasant,  penetrating  odor,  and  sweetish  pungent  taste,  sp.  gr.  0.725  at 


ETHERS   AND  221 

i5°C.,  boiling  point  about  37°C.  Its  vapor  mixed  with  air  forms  a  highly  ex- 
plosive compound,  and  hence  it  should  be  handled  with  care  and  be  kept  in 
well -stoppered  containers,  remote  from  light  or  fire. 

Spirits  JEthcris,  U.  S.,  is  a  mixture  of  32.5  C.C.  ether  with  67.5  C.C.  of 
alcohol. 

Spiritus  ALtheris  Compositus,  U.  S.,  or  Hoffmann's  Anodyne,  the  above  with 
2.5  C.C.  of  ethereal  oil  in  100  C.C. 

This  and  the  preceding  spirit  are  used  in  medicine  as  stimulants,  antispas- 
modics,  and  anodynes. 

Uses. — The  great  value  of  ether  in  pharmacy  depends  on  its  solvent 
power.  It  stands  next  to  alcohol  in  this  respect,  and  excels  it  as  a 
solvent  for  certain  oils  and  resins.  In  medicine  its  most  important 
use  is  as  an  anaesthetic.  It  is  safer  and  better  than  chloroform. 

COMPOUND    ETHERS. 

Nitrous  Etker. — C2H.NO2,  or  Ethyl  Nitrite. — Formed  along  with 
other  products  when  Alcohol  is  acted  upon  by  Nitric  Acid  or  Nitrites 
in  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  as  a  dehydrating  agent: 

(1)  NaNO2+H2SO4=HNO2-fNaHSO4.  and 

(2)  C2H5OH  +  HNO2=C2H.NO.,-!  H.20. 

A  mobile,  colorless  liquid,  with  a  peculiar  pungent  taste,  and  an  odor  re- 
sembling apples. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether. — Spiritus  /Etheris  Nitrosi,  U.  S. — Sweet 
Spirit  of  Nitre. — An  alcoholic  solution  of  the  above  ether  freshly  pre- 
pared representing  not  less  than  n  times  its  volume  of  Nitrogen  Di- 
oxide, NO,  corresponding  to  about  4  per  cent  of  Ethyl  Nitrite.  The 
Ether  is  produced  by  reaction  on  Sodium  Nitrite  with  Sulphuric  Acid 
in  the  presence  of  Alcohol  and  obtaining  the  Ether  by  distillation,  puri- 
fying it  and  mixing  it  with  21  times  its  weight  of  Deodorized  Alcohol. 

A  transparent,  volatile,  inflammable  liquid  with  a  pungent  taste  and  a  fruity 
odor;  sp.  gr.  from  0.823  to  0.825  and  its  boiling  point  65  C. 

L'ses. — As  a  diuretic  and  nervous  stimulant. 

Acetic  Ether— (C.$\J  (C,H:1O,;.— Ethyl  Acetate. — .Ether  Aceticus, 
U.  S. — A  liquid  composed  of  98.5  per  cent  by  weight  of  Ethyl 
Acetate  and  about  1.5  per  cent  of  Alcohol.  It  is  produced  by  re- 
acting upon  Sodium  Acetate  with  Sulphuric  Acid  in  the  presence  of 
Alcohol  and  distilling. 

A  limpid,  colorless,  volatile  liquid,  having  an  ethereal,  and  somewhat  acet- 
ous odor  and  taste;  inflammable;  sp.  gr.  0.895,  boils  at  about  76  C. 

L'scs. — Similar  to  those  of  ether.  It  is  also  valuable  as  a  solvent  for  many 
fixed  and  volatile  oils  and  resins;  and  as  an  addition  to  perfumes. 

Formic  Ether.  —  (C..H.)  (CHO)O,  or  Ethyl  Formate,  is  produced 
by  distillation  of  a  mixture  of  Sodium  Formate.  Alcohol  and  Sul- 


222  COMPOUND   ETHERS. 

phuric  Acid,  the  distillate  being  afterward  rectified  over  calcium 
chloride. 

A  limpid,  colorless,  inflammable  liquid,  with  an  agreeable  smell,  suggesting 
that  of  peach  kernels,  and  a  pungent  taste.  Sp.  gr.  0.918,  boils  at  yo'C. 

f'ses.—As  a  mild  anaesthetic. 

Methylic  Ether.  —  (CH3)2O. — Obtained  by  action  on  Methylic  Alco- 
hol with  Sulphuric  Acid  and  distilling. 

A  colorless,  volatile,  inflammable  liquid  at  the  temperature  of  2O°C.,  but  at 
higher  temperature  a  gas  which  is  freely  soluble  in  \vater,  ordinary  ether, 
methyl  alcohol,  and  alcohol.  Like  ordinary  ether  it  has  anaesthetic  properties. 
Its  uses  in  pharmacy  are  limited. 

Methyl  Salic\latc.—£}\£,J&£>v—  Methyl  Salicylas,  U.  S.— Arti- 
ficial Oil  of  Wintergreen.  Produced  synthetically  by  the  action  of 
-Salicylic  Acid  on  Methylic  Alcohol  in  the  presence  of  Sulphuric  Acid. 
Sp.  gr.  1.183  to  l-I^5  at  i5°C. 

A  colorless,  slightly  yellowish  liquid  having  the  characteristic  odor  and 
sweetish,  aromatic  taste  of  Oil  of  Gaultheria,  being  identical  with  the  essential 
constituent  of  the  latter  (see  Salicylic  Acid).  It  is  also  identical  with  the  vola- 
tile Oil  of  Birch.  It  boils  at  22o°C.  and  is  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  alcohol, 
glacial  acetic  acid  and  carbon  disulphide. 

Uses. — Ai|  a  substitute  for  Oil  of  Gaultheria  and  medicinally  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  other  salicylates. 

HALOID    ETHERS. 

Ethyl  Chlorides. — (C.,H.)C1,  or  Chlorhydric  Ether,  is  produced  by 
the  action  of  Phosphorus  pentachloride  on  ordinary  Alcohol. 

A  colorless,  mobile,  volatile  and  inflammable  liquid;  burning  taste;  boils  at 
I3°C.,  sp.  gr.  0.900. 

Ethylenc  Bi-Chloridc. — (C2H4)C12,  is  allied  to  the  foregoing.  It  is 
commonly  called  "Dutch  liquid,"  and  is  produced  by  the  reaction  of 
Chlorine  gas  upon  olefiant  gas. 

A  colorless,  thin,  oily  liquid,  with  an  odor  like  chloroform,  a  sweetish,  pun- 
gent taste,  inflammable,  sp.  gr.  at  o°C.,  1.27,  boils  at  85°C. 

It  has  been  used  as  an  anaesthetic. 

Ethyl  Bromide.  —  (C2H.)Br,  or  Bromhydric  Ether,  is  produced  by 
the  reaction  of  Bromine  on  Alcohol  in  the  presence  of  phosphorus. 

In  physical  properties  it  somewhat  resembles  ethyl  chloride,  but  is  denser, 
having  a  sp.  gr.  at  15  C.  of  1.419;  boiling  point  40  C.  It  is  also  less  readily 
inflammable. 

Used  as  an  anaesthetic,  but  the  dangers  attending  its  use  are  similar  to  those 
of  chloroform. 


AMYL   NITRITE.  223 

Ethyl  Iodide. —  (C.2H5)I,  or  lodohydric  Ether,  is  prepared  by  a 
method  analogous  to  that  adopted  in  the  preparation  of  ethyl  bromide. 

A  colorless,  non-inflammable  volatile  liquid  of  a  peculiar,  penetrating  odor; 
sp.  gr.  1.93  at  i5°C.,  boils  at  72  C. 

Used  for  its  iodine,  as  an  inhalant  in  pulmonary  disorders;  not  anaesthetic.. 

Ethereal  Oil. — Oleum  yEthereum,  U.  S. — A  liquid  consisting  of 
equal  volumes  of  Heavy  Oil  of  Wine  and  Ether;  sp.  gr.  0.910. 

Produced  by  the  reaction  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Alcohol,  distilling,  washing 
and  mixing  the  distillate  with  an  equal  volume  of  Ether. 

Uses. — For  preparing  Spiritus  AJtheris  Compositus. 

AMYL    DERIVATIVES. 

Amyl Nitrite. — C5HUNO2  — Amyl  Nitris,  U.  S. — A  liquid  contain- 
ing 80  per  cent  of  Amyl  Nitrite  together  with  some  other  compounds. 
Sp.  gr.  0.870  to  0.880  at  i5°C.  Produced  by  the  action  of  Nitric  or 
Nitrous  Acid  on  Amylic  Alcohol,  the  liquid  distilled  and  purified  by 
washing  and  rectification. 

A  pale,  yellow  liquid  of  a  peculiar,  faintly  ethereal  odor  and  pungent,  aro- 
matic taste.  Almost  insoluble  in  water,  but  misrible  with  alcohol  or  ether  in 
all  proportions.  It  volatilizes  at  ordinary  temperature  ana  is  inflammable. 

Use;. — The  vapors  as  an  inhalant  to  increase  the  heart's  action.  Dose  o. i  io 
0.3  in  glass-pearls,  to  be  crushed  in  a  handkerchief  for  i.ihalation 


224  CHLORAL. 

ALDEHYDE  AND  DERIVATIVES. 

Aldehyde. — CaH4O. — Ethylic  Aldehyde. — Produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  Alcohol  by  withdrawal  of  2  atoms  of  H  from  C2H5OH, 
hence  the  name  meaning  Alcohol  de-hydrogenated. 

A  colorless,  mobile  liquid,  very  inflammable,  boils  at  21  °C.,  miscible  with 
water,  alcohol  arid  ether  in  all  proportions. 

Paraldchyde. — CfiH,2O3. — Paraldehydum,  U.  S. — A  polymeric  form 
of  Ethylic  Aldehyde. — Produced  by  the  action  of  Chlorine  on  Ethylic 
Aldehyde  until  the  latter  is  not  soluble  in  an  equal  volume  of  water, 
when  it  is  separated  in  a  crystalline  mass  at  the  freezing  point  and 
afterward  distilled. 

A  colorless  liquid,  boiling  at  i23°C.,  soluble  in  8.5  parts  water  and  miscible 
with  alcohol,  ether,  fixed  and  volatile  oils  in  all  proportions. 

Uses. — As  a  hypnotic  in  the  form  of  pearls,  elixirs,  etc.;  dose  i  Gm. 

Chloral  Hydrate.— C£lC\,p  +  ll£>.—  Chloral,  U.  S.— A  crystalline 
solid,  composed  of  trichloraldehyde  or  Chloral  with  one  molecule  of 
water. 

It  is  obtained  by  passing  dry  Chlorine  gas  into  absolute  Alcohol  for 
a  long  time.  The  Alcohol  is  first  decomposed  into  Aldehyde  and  the 
Chlorine  into  HC1  and  finally  by  the  prolonged  action  of  more 
Chlorine  into  Chloral.  [See  Reaction  under  Chloroform.]  A  solid 
mass  is  thus  obtained  which  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  the 
chloral  separates  as  an  oily  layer.  This  is  purified  by  distillation 
over  quicklime,  and  hydrating  the  product  by  adding  the  necessary 
amount  of  water. 

Rhomboidal,  colorless  and  translucent  crystal,  having  an  aromitic,  pene- 
trating and  slightly  acrid  odor  and  a  bitterish,  caustic  taste;  slowly  volatilized 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  Freely  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform, 
benzol,  benzin,  fixed  and  volatile  oils. 

It  liquefies  camphor,  menthol,  thymol,  phenol  and  their  derivatives  when 
triturated  with  them  in  about  equal  proportions. 

Uses. — As  a  hypnotic,  but  is  attended  with  some  danger;  as  an  overdose  may 
produce  fatal  consequences,  great  care  should  be  used  in  dispensing  it,  and  only 
such  samples  as  answer  the  Pharmacopoeial  tests  for  purity  should  be  dis- 
pensed for  internal  use,  namely,  the  crystals.  Dose  0.5  to  i  Gm. 

Caution. — Chloral  is  incompatible  with  alkalies  and  alkaline  car- 
bonates and  compounds  of  Ammonium  and  Mercury. 

Chloroform.  — CHC13. — Chloroformum,  U.  S.  —  Chloroformum 
Purificatum,  U.  S.  Ph.,  'So. — A  liquid  consisting  of  99  to  99.4  per 
cent  by  weight  of  Absolute  Chloroform  and  i  to  0.6  per  cent  of 
Alcohol;  sp.  gr.  1.490. 

Its  molecule  is  like  that  of  methyl  hydride.  CH4,  except  that  three 


CHLOROFORM.  225 

of  its  hydrogen  atoms  are  replaced  by  chlorine,  and  it  belongs,  there- 
fore, chemically  to  the  methyl  series  of  compounds. 

Produced  by  the  action  of  Chlorinated  Lime  on  Alcohol  and  dis- 
tilling, also  by  the  action  of  caustic  Soda  on  Chloral  Hydrate.  The 
reaction  leaving  out  the  intermediate  steps  is  as  follows: 

2C2H5OH-f  ioCa()Clr   2CHCl3-f  7CaCl24-2CaCO.,+ 
Ca(OH)ri  4H,0. 

It  is  usually  made  by  distilling  Acetone  with  a  mixture  of  Chlorinated 
Lime  and  Water.  The  distillate,  washed  with  water,  constitutes  crude 
chloroform,  which  is  of  value  in  pharmacy  as  a  solvent  and  in  the 
preparation  of  liniment,  but  should  never  be  used  internally.  The 
commercial  chloroform  is  purified  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  which  de- 
stroys the  organic  impurities,  thoroughly  washed  and  distilled  with  a 
little  Alcohol  to  preserve  it. 

A  heavy,  clear,  colorless  liquid  of  a  characteristic  pleasant  ethereal  odor,  a 
burning  sweet  taste  and  neutral  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  about  200  times  its 
volume  of  cold  water  and  in  all  proportions  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzol,  benzin, 
fixed  and  volatile  oils.  It  is  volatile  at  ordinary  temperature,  and  boils  at  60  C. 

Tt-sts. — When  agitated  with  twice  its  volume  of  water,  the  latter  should  be 
\i)  neutral  to  blue  litmus-paper  (absence  of  acids),  (2)  should  not  affect  test- 
solution  of  silver  nitrate  (chlorides),  nor  (3)  show  coloration  with  Sulphuric 
Acid  (organic  impurities).  No  foreign  odor  should  be  noticed  when  a  few  drops 
are  permitted  to  evaporate  from  a  piece  of  blotting-paper.  (For  further  tests 
see  U.  S.  Ph.) 

Cst-s. — Chiefly  as  an  anaesthetic.  It  is  doubtless  less  safe  than  ether,  but 
most  of  the  accidents  that  happen  from  its  proper  use  as  an  anaesthetic  may  be 
attributed  to  the  impure  quality  of  the  chloroform,  and  it  cannot,  therefore,  be 
too  strongly  insisted  upon  that  the  tests  of  purity  required  by  the  Pharmaco- 
poeia be  carefully  applied  to  all  chloroform  sold  for  this  purpose. 

Off.  Prep. — Aqua  Chloroformi:  Kmulsum  Chloroform!;  Linimen- 
tum  Chloroformi;  Spiritus  Chloroformi. 

Croton  Chloral.— C  H.CLO.—  Butvl   Chloral.— Trichlor-butyl-alde- 

4          D  o  * 

hyde. — By  the  action  of  Chlorine  on  Acetic  Aldehyde,  separation  by 
distillation  and  hydration.  as  in  making  ordinary  chloral. 

It  differs  from  ordinary  Chloral,  chiefly  in  being  sparingly  soluble  in  water. 
Its  medicinal  properties  are  the  same  as  of  the  ordinary  Chloral,  in  about  one- 
third  the  dose. 

lodoform. — CHI3. — Tri-iodo-methane  has  been  described  under 
Iodine. 


Products  of  Vinous  Fermentation. 

WINES. 

Wines  are  alcoholic  liquids  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  fruit 
juices,  chiefly  those  of  the  different  species  of  the  Grape,  Vitis  vinifera. 
They  may  be  divided  into  white  and  red  wines. 

The  White  wines  are  not  usually  colorless,  but  light-colored  and 
are  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  the  juice  freed  from  seeds^ 
stems  and  skins.  The  Red  wines  are  reddish  in  color,  because  the 
juice  is  derived  from  colored  grapes  and  has  been  fermented  in  contact 
with  the  "skins,"  and  has  consequently  taken  up  more  or  less  of  their 
coloring  matter,  and  therefore  contains  more  tannin  than  the  white 
wines. 

Vinum  Album,  U.  S. ,  refers  to  any  one  of  the  numerous  varieties  of 
white  wines  of  domestic  production. 

White  wine  should  have  a  full,  fruity,  agreeable  taste,  without  either  exces- 
si%'e  sweetness  or  acidity,  and  its  odor  should  be  agreeable  and  free  from 
^eastiness.  It  should  contain  not  less  than  10  per  cent,  nor  more  than  14  per 
cent  by  weight  of  absolute  alcohol,  and  its  sp.  gr.  should  be  not  less  than  0.99 
nor  more  than  i.oi.  Sherry,  Madeira,  Hock  and  Moselle  are  examples  of  im- 
ported white  wines. 

For  pharmaceutical  purposes,  a  wine  stronger  in  alcohol  is  required,  than 
can  be  prepared  by  simple  fermentation,  the  highest  thus  obtained  being  13.75 
per  cent  by  \veight,  or  17  per  cent  by  volume.  For  this  reason  from  10  to  15 
per  cent  of  Alcohol  is  added  to  wine  when  it  is  used  as  a  menstruum  or 
solvent  in  the  Medicated  Wines.  The  greater  proportion  of  alcohol  prevents 
acetic  fermentation,  and  thus  better  preserves  the  preparations. 

Vinum  Rubrum,  U.  S. ,  refers  to  dry  Red  Wines  of  domestic  pro- 
duction, such  as  Claret,  Zinfandel  and  Burgundy.  Claret  and  the 
various  kinds  of  Port  are  examples  of  imported  red  wines. 

Malt  Liquors  are  made  by  the  fermentation  of  infusions  of  malt  to  which 
hops  have  been  added;  they  contain  a  smaller  proportion  of  alcohol  than  wines; 
usually  from  5  to  8  per  cent. 

,#;-tf //</)'.— Spiritus  Yini  Gallici,  U.  S. — An  alcoholic  liquid  ob- 
tained by  the  distillation  of  the  fermented,  unmodified  juice  of  fresh 
grapes,  and  at  least  four  years  old.  Its  sp.  gr.  should  not  be  more 
than  0.941  nor  less  than  0.925.  corresponding  to  an  alcoholic  strength 
of  39  to  47  per  cent  by  weight  (46-55^  vol.). 

Brandy  improves  with  age  the  same  as  whisky,  the  improvement  in  each 


TARTAKIC    AN'D   CITRIC    ACIDS.  227 

case  being  chiefly  due  to  the  gradual  chemical  change  and  disappearance  of  the 
traces  of  fusel  oil  that  could  not  be  separated  by  fractional  distillation. 

From  the  Crape-juice  indirectly  the  following  is  produced: 
Tartaric  Acid. — I^CMM),.. —  Acidum  Tartaric  um,  I'.  S. — A  di- 
basic acid  found  either  free  or  in  combination  in  the  juices  of  many 
fruits — as  grapes,  tamarinds,  sumach  berries,  pineapples,  etc.  Its 
principal  commercial  source  is  from  Cream  of  Tartar,  which  in  turn  is 
derived  from  the  crude  tartar  or  Argol  that  collects  in  the  form  of 
crystalline  crusts  on  the  sides  of  casks  of  fermenting  wine. 

Cream  of  Tartar  is  decomposed  by  Calcium  Carbonate  into  Cal- 
cium Tartrate  and  the  latter  is  decomposed  by  Sulphuric  Acid  setting 
the  Tartaric  Acid  free,  which  is  then  obtained  in  a  pure  form  In  <  rys- 
tallization. 

Colorless  crystals  of  oblique  rhombic  prisms,  not  deliquescent,  containing  no 
water  of  crystallization,  inodorous,  intensely  but  agreeably  sour,  soluble  in  o  S 
parts  of  water  and  in  2.5  parts  of  alcohol,  and  in  250  parts  of  ether  nearly  in- 
soluble in  chloroform  and  ben/in. 

Tartaric  acid  is  not  much  used  medicinally;  but  in  the  powdered  form  is  an 
ingredient  in  Seidlitz  powder. 

Off.  Prep. — Pulv.  Kffervescens  comp. 

Closely  related  to  Tartiric  Acid  is  Citric  Acid,  the  two  often  oc- 
curring together  in  fruits. 

Citric  Acitt.  -- IWJM  >7  ,  -Hj().  —  Acidum  Citncum,  I'.  S.— A 
tri  basic  acid,  obtained  chiefly  from  the  juice  of  lemons  and  limes. 

The  juice  is  first  clarified  by  boiling,  and  the  clear  licniid  treated 
with  Calcium  Carbonate.  From  the  Calcium  Citrate  thus  formed  the 
Citric  Acid  is  liberated  by  treating  it  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  and  after- 
wards repeatedly  crystalli/ing. 

Colorless,  transparent,  right-rhombic  prisms,  of  an  agreeably  acid  taste, 
soluble  in  o.Oj  parts  of  water  and  0.4  parts  of  boiling  water,  in  i.oi  parts  of 
alcohol  and  in  iS  parts  of  ether.  If  an  aqueous  solution  of  it  be  added  to  lime- 
water  it  remains  clear  until  boiled,  when  a  white  precipitate  falls  which  will 
nearly  all  be  taken  up  when  the  liquid  cools  Citric  Acid  is  distinguished  from 
Tartaric  Acid,  aside  from  its  solubilities,  in  dro.mp.  'sin-  without  emitting  the 
odor  of  burning  sugar  when  slowly  ignited,  and  in  not  producing  a  precipitate 
with  a  solution  of  Potassium  Acetate,  upon  the  additon  of  alcohol 

('st-s.—In  making  the  Citrates  am!  in  the  Liquor  Ma^nesii  Citratib  and 
Liquor  Potassii  Citratis. 


Drugs  of  Group  II. 

ACID    SACCHARINE     DRUGS. 

This  group,  also  called  "refrigerant  drugs,"  includes  those  drugv 
vhose  virtues  chiefly  depend  on  the  presence  of  Sugar  and  such 
organic  acids  as  citric,  malic  and  tartaric  acids.  Many  of  them  pos- 
sess mildly  laxative  properties. 

Cassia  fistula. — Cassia  Fistula,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Cassia  Fistula, 
Linne.  Constituents:  Sugar,  mucilage,  pectin,  fruit  acids.  Off  Prep.: 
Confectio  Senme. 

Last's. — The  pulp  is  prepared  by  treating  the  cassia  with  water,  freeing  the 
mixture  from  the  seeds  and  woody  portion  by  straining  and  evaporating  the 
liquid;  yield,  about  30  per  cent. 

Lemon  Juice. — Limonis  Succus,  U.  S. — Fresh  juice  of  ripe  fruit  of 
Citrus  Limonurn,  Risso.  Constituents:  Citric  acid  from  7  to  10  per 
cent  malic  acid,  sugar  and  gum.  Preparations,  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80:  Mis- 
hira  Potassii  Cirratis;  Syrupus  Limonis. 

Lemon  juice  is  liable  to  become  moldy  or  otherwise  unfit  for  use.  It  may 
be  prepared  by  precipitating  the  gum  by  the  addition  to  the  juice  of  one-half  its 
weight  of  alcohol,  the  clear  portion  heated  to  expel  the  alcohol,  and  bot- 
tled while  hot. 

Raspberry. — Rubus  Idseus,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Rubus  Idaeus,  Linne. 
Constituents:  Sugar,  citric  and  malic  acids,  pectin,  glucose,  trace  of 
volatile  oil,  coloring  matters.  Off.  Prep.:  Syrupus  Rubi  Idoei. 

(.'.vs. — In  the  preparation  of  Raspberry  Syrup,  the  crushed  berries  are  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  about  36  hours,  so  as  to  undergo  a  slight  fermentation.  The 
expressed  juice  is  clarified  by  standing,  filtered  and  the  Sugar  dissolved  in  the 
filtrate  by  heat.  The  Syrup  is  brought  to  the  boiling  point,  strained,  bottled 
while  hot  and  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

Tamarinds. — Tamarindus,  U.  S.— Preserved  pulp  of  fruit  of  Tama- 
rindus  Indica,  Linne.  Constituents:  Citrates,  malates,  tartrates,  ace- 
tates; also  sugar,  pectin,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Confectio  Sennae. 

L'ses. — The  pulp  is  prepared  by  treating  tamarinds,  with  water,  expressing 
and  straining  the  expressed  liquid,  then  evaporating  to  the  consistence  of  a 
pulp,  or  a  very  soft  extract. 

Rhus  Glabra. — Rhus  glabra,  U.  S. — Smooth  Sumach.  Fruit  of 
Rhus  glabra,  Linne.  Constituents:  Acid  calcium  and  potassium 
malates,  tannin,  coloring  matter.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Rhois 
<rlabrae  Fluidum. 


Essential  Oils. 

The  Essential  or  volatile  Oils  bear  some  resemblance  in  their  ap- 
pearance and  physical  properties  to  the  fixed  oils  or  fats,  but  they 
differ  from  them  (i)  in  chemical  composition,  (2)  in  their  specific 
gravities,  (3)  in  their  boiling  points,  (4)  in  being  completely  volatiza- 
ble  without  decomposition  or  change  and  therefore  not  leaving  a  stain 
when  volatilized  from  paper  arid  (5)  in  not  being  saponified  by 
alkalies. 

They  are  slightly  soluble  in  water,  in  certain  proportions  of  alcohol, 
but  freely  soluble  in  ether,  and  the  fixed  oils;  they  are  all  inflam- 
mable, and  all  burn  with  a  smoky  flame.  In  specific  gravity  they 
range  from  0.82  to  1.18,  but  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  them  are 
lighter  than  water.  Their  boiling  point  is  higher  than  that  of  water — • 
ranging  from  i5o°C.  to  25o°C.  They  are  supposed  to  be  perfectly 
transparent  and  colorless  when  pure,  but  all  undergo  change  on 
standing,  being  partly  converted  into  resin,  and  acquire  various,  often 
characteristic,  colors. 

As  to  their  origin,  few  occur  in  animal  structures,  but  they  are  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  their  varieties  are  very  numerous. 
Sometimes  they  are  diffused  through  the  entire  structure  of  the  plant,  some- 
times they  are  confined  to  a  part,  as  to  the  flower,  or  the  fruit;  sometimes 
they  occupy  separate  cells,  or  conceptacles,  as  in  the  rind  of  the  Orange,  and 
the  oil  tubes  in  the  fruits  of  the  Umbelliferae.  They  are  usually  found  asso- 
ciated with  resins,  and  hold  them  in  solution.  For  the  plants  that  produce 
them  they  serve  various  purposes.  The  turpentine  of  Pines,  and  Oil  of  Mus- 
tard and  Horseradish  are  doubtless  protective,  while  those  volatile  oils  that  give 
rise  to  the  pleasant  odors  of  certain  flowers  serve  the  purpose  of  attracting 
•winged  insects  that  aid  in  cross-fertilization. 

PRESERVATION'. 

Volatile  oils  undergo  changes  by  standing.  These  are  due  partly 
to  the  effects  of  light  and  partly,  probably,  to  the  oxidi/ing  influence 
of  the  air.  The  changes  are  greatly  retarded  if  the  oils  be  kept  in 
full,  tightly-stoppered  bottles  and  in  a  dark  place,  or  mixed  with 
about  10  per  rent  of  Alcohol.  They  should  not  be  kept  in  shop- 
bottles.  Oils  that  have  become  discolored  by  age  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  rectification.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  mixing  them 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  odorless  fat  and  distilling  them  from  a  solution 
of  common  salt  in  water. 

•33 


234  VOLATILE   OILS 

ADULTERATIONS. 

Volatile  oils  are  liable  to  be  adulterated  with  (i)  fixed  oils,  (2} 
alcohol,  and  (3)  with  other  (cheaper)  volatile  oils. 

Fixed  oils  may  be  detected  by  placing  a  drop  of  the  suspected  oil  upon  a 
piece  of  clean  white  paper  and  gently  heating  it;  if  they  be  present,  the  oil  will 
leave  a  permanent  stain.  Also  fixed  oils,  if  present  in  considerable  quantity, 
will  be  separated  on  the  addition  .of  alcohol. 

Alcohol  may  be  detected  by  observing  whether  or  not  contraction  takes 
place  when  measured  quantities  of  the  oil  and  water  are  mixed  in  a  graduated 
glass  tube.  If  contraction  takes  place,  alcohol  is  present,  and  the  amount  of 
contraction  indicates  approximately  the  quantity  of  alcohol  present. 

Separation  of  alcohol  may  also  be  effected  by  adding  a  fixed  oil,  such  as 
Olive  Oil,  which  dissolves  in  the  volatile  oil  and  throws  alcohol,  if  present,  out 
of  solution.  Red  anilin  may  also  be  used  as  a  test,  as  it  is  soluble  in  alcohol 
but  entirely  insoluble  in  the  volatile  oils.  If,  therefore,  the  sample  tested  is 
colored  red,  it  indicates  the  presence  of  alcohol  as  an  impurity. 

Admixture  of  other  cheaper  volatile  oils  is  more  difficult  of  detection. 

It  is  usually  the  case  that  if  a  drop  of  mixed  oils  be  evaporated,  either  from 
the  hand  or  from  a  sheet  of  paper  warmed  over  a  lamp,  the  difference  may  be 
detected  by  observing  the  odor  from  time  to  time,  as  one  of  the  essential  oils 
is  likely  to  volatilize  more  rapidly  than  the  other. 

If  the  oxygenated  oils  are  adulterated  with  Turpentine,  as  is  likely  to  be  the 
case  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  its  presence  may  often  be  detected  by  treat- 
ing a  portion  of  the  suspected  oil  with  85  per  cent  alcohol,  in  which  the  turpen- 
tine is  less  soluble  than  the  oxygenated  essences,  and  will  therefore  separate 
out. 

In  judging  of  essential  oils  by  the  sense  of  smell,  particularly  if  they  are 
alcoholic  solutions,  it  is  always  better  to  rub  a  drop  on  the  hand  and  then 
smell  of  it,  than  to  smell  of  it  directly  from  the  bottle,  as  in  the  latter  case  the 
pungent  odor  of  the  alcohol,  if  present,  obscures  the  odor  of  the  essence, 
and  evaporation  of  the  oil  can  not  take  place  so  rapidly  from  the  liquid  sur- 
face in  the  bottle  as  fro:n  the  warm  hand. 

The  volatile  oils,  or  ' -'Ethereal  oils"  as  they  are  more  correctly 
termed,  enter  largely  into  medicinal  preparations,  sometimes  for  the 
sake  of  flavor,  as  in  the  official  spirits  or  "essences"  sometimes  as  aro- 
matic stimulants,  as  in  the  Medicated  Waters  or  in  the  Elasosacchara  of 
the  Nat.  Form.;  but  more  frequently  as  correctives  of  nauseous  drugs. 

METHODS    OF    PREPARATION. 

The  volatile  oils  are  extracted  in  various  ways: 

(1)  By  Expression,  as  in  the  case  with  the  oils  of  Orange,  Lemon 
and  Bergamot,  where  the  oil  is  secreted  in  conceptacles  in  the  rinds 
of  the  fruit. 

(2)  By  Distillation  from  Oleoresins.      The  oleoresins  are  resins  in 
solution  in  volatile  oils,  such  as  Turpentine  and  Copaiba  from  which 
respectively  volatile  oils  are  obtained. 


PREPARATION.  235 

(3)  By  Distillation  of  the  aromatic  substance  with  water. 

The  Substance  coarsely  comminuted,  or  in  the  fresh  state  as  for  example 
Peppermint,  is  first  macerated  with  water  in  a  still.  Upon  applying  heat  the 
water  boils  and  vaporizing  carries  the  oil  with  it.  The  oil  being  less  soluble 
in  the  distillate  separates  and  usually  of  a  lower  specific  gravity  than  water, 
floats  on  top  of  the  water  from  which  it  is  collected.  This  separation  is 
usually  effected  by  using  a  Florence  flask  as  a  receiver.  The  distillate  is  a 
saturated  solution  of  the  oil  in  water  and  may  be  used  instead  of  water  in  sub- 
sequent similar  operations  or  as  an  aromatic  water;  Rose  Water  and  Orange 
Flower  Water  are  obtained  in  this  way  as  by-products  in  the  distillation  of 
their  respective  oils.  Most  volatile  oils,  although  their  boiling  points  are 
higher  than  that  of  water,  owing  to  their  volatility,  distill  readily  in  this 
way,  but  in  case  the  boiling  point  of  the  oil  be  very  high,  common  salt  is 
sometimes  added  to  the  water,  to  raise  its  boiling  point,  or  the  process  is 
hastened  by  passing  a  current  of  steam  into  the  bottom  of  the  still. 

(4)  By  extraction  with   volatile  solvents,  such  as   Alcohol,  Ether, 
Chloroform,  Benzin,  Carbon  Disulphide,  etc. 

The  solvent  is  permitted  to  evaporate,  leaving  the  volatile  oil  mingled  with 
some  impurities,  from  which  it  is  freed  by  distillation. 

(5)  By  extraction  with  fixed  solvents,  such  as  Fixed  Oils  and  Fats. 
The  process  of  distillation,  though  more  speedy  and  convenient,  is 

too  wasteful  where  it  is  desired  to  collect  the  delicate  volatile  essences 
of  flowers,  which  frequently  ure  present  in  the  flowers  only  in  minute 
proportions:  so,  for  this  purpose,  the  process  of  enflcurage  is  usuall) 
adopted. 

J'.nflcurage  consists  in  sprinkling  the  material,  from  which  the  essence  is  to  be 
extracted,  on  the  surface  of  some  purified  and  odorless  fat  contained  in  shallow 
trays.  The  fat  after  a  time  takes  up  the  essence,  and  the  exhausted  material 
may  be  replaced  by  fresh  and  the  process  continued  until  a  strongly  perfumed 
poiiunh-  is  obtained.  If  this  pomade  be  now  treated  with  Alcohol  the  essence  is 
dissolved,  while  but  little  of  the  fat  passes  into  solution,  and  that  little  may  be 
separated  by  exposing  the  alcoholic  solution  to  a  low  temperature,  when  the 
fat  crystallizes  out.  The  product  thus  obtained  is  the  "extract"  of  the  per- 
fumers. The  volatile  oil  may  be  obtained  from  this  by  treating  it  with  water, 
when  the  oil  separates  out. 


*36  CLASSIFICATION, 

The  volatile  oils  are  classified  according  to  their  elementary  com- 
position as  follows: 

1.  The   Terpenes  or  Camphenes,  also  called   "Hydrocarbons"   be- 
cause they  have  the  Composition   C10Hj8. 

2.  The  Oxygenated  Oils   or  "Essences,"  which  contain  Oxygen   in 
addition  to  Carbon  and  Hydrogen. 

3.  The  Nitrogcnatcd,  containing  Nitrogen  in   addition  to  Carbon, 
Hydrogen  and  Oxygen,  and 

4.  The  Sulphurated,  consisting  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  Nitrogen  and 
Sulphur. 

THE    TERPENES. 

The  Terpenes,  so-called  because  Oil  of  Turpentine  is  the  type,  in- 
clude the  volatile  oils  derived  from  plants  belonging  mostly  to  the 
natural  order  Coniferre. 

They  are  characterized  by  ranging  in  specific  gravity  from  0.840  to 
0.890;  in  boiling  point  from  i5o°C.  to  25o°C.;  in  being  less  soluble 
in  water  than  oils  of  the  other  groups  and  being  converted  into  para- 
Cymol,  C,0HU,  through  withdrawal  of  two  H  by  reaction  with  Iodine, 
which  becomes  so  intense  as  to  cause  fulmination.  They  also  react 
strongly  with  Nitric  and  Sulphuric  Acids  and  these  must  be  cautiously 
added  when  desired  to  be  mixed  with  these  oils. 

Oil  Turpentine. — Oleum  Terebinthinic,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  dis- 
tillation of  Turpentine,  an  Oleoresin  derived  from  Pinus  palustris  and 
other  species  of  the  Pine.  The  residue  is  the  common  resin  or  col- 
ophony. 

A  colorless  liquid  of  a  characteristic  odor  and  taste,  sp.  gr.  0.855  to  0.870, 
boils  at  155  to  170  C.,  soluble  in  3  volumes  of  alcohol  and  in  an  equal  volume 
of  glacial  acetic  acid. 

Uses. — As  a  solvent  for  resins,  etc.,  externally  in  Liniments;  internally  dis- 
solved in  a  fixed  oil  or  in  the  form  of  emulsion,  the  purifed  form  being  em- 
ployed. 

Off.  Prep. — Linimentum  Terebinthinre  and  the  following: 

OL'inn  Tercbinthina:  Kcctificatum,  U.  S. — Prepared  by  shaking  common  Oil 
of  Turpentine  with  six  volumes  of  Lime  Water,  distilling  the  mixture  and  col- 
lecting about  three-fourths  of  the  oil  employed  and  separating  it  from  water. 

This  purified  oil  added  to  boiling  water  is  used  as  an  inhalant  in  "consump- 
tion," bronchitis,  etc.  The  Emulsion  is  best  made  by  dissolving  5  C.C.  of  the 
Oil  in  10  C.C.  of  Almond  Oil,  emulsifying  with  5  Gm.  powdered  Acacia  and 
water  to  make  100  C.C. 

Oil  of  Turpentine  is  a  mixture  of  several  substances  called  pinene,  ter- 
pincne  and  dipentene,  which  differ  chiefly  in  their  optical  behavior, 
i.  e. ,  turning  polarized  light  to  the  left,  lerogyratc,  or  to  the  right,  dex- 


TEKPENES. 


237 


trogyratc.  Treated  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  added  in  small  portions  at 
a  temperature  not  above  7o°C.,  washed  with  alkali  water  and  that 
portion  boiling  under  i6o°C.  separated  by  fractional  distillation,  the 
following  is  obtained: 

Tcn-hcnc. — C10IIlr>. — Tcrebenum,  V.  S. — A  liquid  consisting  chiefly 
of  1'inene,  optically  inactive,  sp.  gr.  o.«S62. 

It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol, 
glacial  acetic  acid  or  carbon  disulphide. 

Csi'-f. — As  an  antiseptic  and  deodorant. 

Tci-pin  Hydrate.— C1(,HlH(OH)24  II,O.—  Ferpini  Hydras,  U.  S.— 
The  hydrate  of  the  diatomic  alcohol  Terpin. 

I'roduced  through  the  action  of  Nitric  Acid  on  Oil  of  Turpentine  in  the 
presence  of  Alcohol  and  crystallizing  from  hot  alcohol  or  glacial  acetic  acid. 

Colorless,  lustrous,  rhombic  prisms,  nearly  odorless  and  having  a  slightly 
aromatic  taste,  soluble  in  250  parts  of  water,  in  10  of  alcohol,  in  100  of  ether, 
in  200  of  chloroform  and  in  i  part  of  boiling  glacial  acetic  acid. 

f'.fi-.f.--ln  Bronchial  difficulties,  dose  i  dcg. 

The  following  Oils  are  also  included  with  the  Terpenes: 


Oleum: 


part  of. 


plant. 


sp.  gr. 


i  vol   sol   in  alco- 
hol volsf. 

.     .      .   4. 


Rosmarini  .  leaves 
Lavandulru  .  flor.  . 
Erigerontis  .  hb.  . 
Myrcuie  . 
Myristicre 
Eucalypti 


leaves 
seed  . 
leaves 


0.975 
0.870 
0.915 
0.920 


i. 

i. 
i. 
I. 

I. 


Juniper!  .    .  fruit  .  .   J.  communis  .    .  0.85   . 
Sabinai    .    .  tops  .    .  J.  Sabina     .    .     .  0.91   . 
.  R.  officinalis  .    .  0.895  . 
.    L.  officinalis  .    .  0.885  • 
.  E.  Canadense     .  0.850  . 
M.  acris  .   .    . 
M.  fragrans     . 
E.  globulus     . 

Cubebce  .    .  fruit .    .  Piper  Cubeba 
Eiicalyptol. -  C10H,,,O. — A  neutral  body  obtained  from   the  \"olatiie 
Oil  of  Eucalyptus. 

Sp.  gr.  09-50,  boils  at  I76°C.,  congeals  at  a  few  degrees  below  the  freezing 
point  and  is  optically  inactive. 

Oil  of  Ccpail'a. — Oleum  Copaiba.-,  L".  S. — Obtained  by  distillation 
from  the  Oleoresin  of  Copaiba  Eangsdorftii.  Kunt/.e.  and  other  species. 

Sp.  gr.  o  Sgo.  forming  a  slightly  cloud}'  mixture  with    10  volumes  of   alcohol. 

The  Oils  of  the  Citrus  Family,  now  classed  with  the  Terpenes.  are- 
ail  obtained  by  expression  from  the  rinds  of  the  Iruits  ot  their  respec- 
tive plants,  except  the  Oil  of  Orange  Flowers,  which  is  obtained  by 
distillation  with  water. 


*Thesp.  gr.  ranges  usually  10  to  20  in  100.  only  the  lowest  is  given  here. 
f  Where  no  figure  is  given  the  oil  is  soluble  in  alcohol  in  anv  proportion. 


238  THE   OXYGENATEE   OILS 

Oil  of  Lemon. — Oleum  Li monis,  U.  S. — Citrus  Limonum. 
Sp.  gr.  0.900  to  0.920;  soluble  in  equal  volume  of  alcohol. 
Off.  Prep. — Spirit.  Aurantii  Comp.,   Spirit.  Limonis. 

Oil  of  Bergamot. — Oleum  Bergamottae,  U.  S. — Citrus  Bergamia, 
Risso  et  P. 

Sp.  gr.  0.880  to  0.885,  2  volumes  of  oil  and  i  volume  alcohol,  clear  solution. 
Uses. — In  cologne  water,  perfumery. 

Oil  of  Orange. — Oleum  Aurantii,  U.  S. — From  either  the  bitter 
Orange,  Citrus  vulgaris,  Risso,  or  the  sweet  Orange,  Citrus  Auran- 
tium,  Linne. 

Sp.  gr.  0.850;  soluble  in  4  volumes  of  alcohol. 

Off.  Prep. — Spirit.  Aurantii;  Sp.  Aurant.  Comp.,  Sp.  Myrciae. 

Oil  of   Orange   Flowers. — Oleum  Aurantii  Florum,   U.   S. — Oil 
Neroli. — Citrus  vulgaris,  Risso. 
Sp.  gr.    0.875  to  0.890;  soluble  in  equal  volume  of  alcohol. 

THE    OXYGENATED    OILS. 

The  Oxygenated  Oils,  or  "Essences"  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
comprise  a  large  number  of  volatile  oils,  containing,  in  addition  to  H 
and  C,  also  a  small  proportion  of  Oxygen. 

They  are  in  most  cases  mixtures  of  a  liquid  terpene  called  eleoptene 
and  a  solid  neutral  body  called  stcaroptenc,  which  may  be  separated 
by  fractional  distillation,  or  by  congelation  (freezing). 

Examples  of  these  are  the  Oils  of  Mint  and  Thyme  from  which  the  two 
stearoptenes,  menthol  and  thymol,  are  respectively  derived.  In  Oils  of  Anise 
and  Rose,  the  stearoptenes,  present  in  large  proportion,  crystallize  at  10"  to 
I5CC.,  and  these  oils  are  therefore  semi-liquid  at  ordinary  temperature  and  re- 
quire to  be  liquefied  by  gentle  heat  previous  to  use. 

A  few  of  them  consist  of  compound  ethers,  esters,  from  which  acids 
may  be  obtained  in  a  crystalline  form,  as  the  salicylic  acid  from 
the  Oil  of  Gaultheria  and  the  Oil  of  Betula,  both  identical  with 
Methyl  Salicylate,  and  cinnamic  acid  from  Oil  of  Cinnamon. 

Physically  they  differ  from  the  Terpenes  proper,  the  Turpentines, 
in  having  a  finer,  more  agreeable  odor,  hence  their  value  as  perfumes; 
they  are  more  soluble  in  water,  and  the  official  Aromatic  Waters  are 
saturated  solutions  of  these  oils;  they  have  a  higher  specific  gravity, 
ranging  with  two  exceptions  from  0.900  to  1.175;  and  a  somewhat 
higher  boiling  point. 

I'fcs. — A  great  many  oils  belonging  to  this  class,  not  official,  are  used  in 
perfumery,  such  as  the  Ihlang,  Jasmin,  etc.;  many  are  employed  as  flavors, 
and  the  savory  herbs  of  Marjoram.  Mints  and  Thyme,  the  fruits  of  Anise, 
Caraway,  Pepper  and  Coriander,  the  flowers  of  Cloves  and  Mace  and  the 
barks  of  Cinnamon  are  all  used  in  the  culinary  arts 


OR   ESSENCES. 


239 


In  medicine  the  oils  are  employed  for  their  aromatic  and  stimulant  effect,  in 
Waters  and  Spirits,  often  as  carminatives,  and  most  frequently  as  adjuvants  t<: 
nauseous  preparations  and  as  correctives  to  drastic  cathartics,  as  in  many  of 
the  official  pills. 

Some  have  specific  effects,  as  the  abortifacients,  Pennyroyal,  Rue,  Tansy 
(and  Sabin)  and  which,  therefore,  can  be  dispensed  only  on  physicians'  pre- 
scriptions. 

plant. 


Oleum: 

Anisi    .    . 
Betulcc  vol. 
Cajuputi  . 


part  of. 

fruit  . 
bark  . 
leaves 


fruit  . 
flor's  . 
fruit . 
bark  . 
fruit  . 
fruit  . 
leaves 


Pimpinella  A  . 
B.    lenta  . 
Melaleuca  Leuca- 

dendron    . 
Carum  Carui 


fruit  . 
flor's  . 
.wood 


C.  ambrosioides 
C.  cassia  . 
C.  sativum 

F.  capillaceum 

G.  procumbens 
H.  pulegioides 
M.  piperita  .  . 
M.  viridis 

P.  officinali 
R.  Damascena 
S.  album 


Cari  .... 

Caryophylli 
Chenopodii  , 
Cinnamomi  , 
Coriandri     . 
Foeniculi   .  . 
Gaultherune  . 
Hedeomre  . 
Menthie  pip 
Menthrc  vir 
Pi  mental  .    . 
Rosre  .  .    . 
Santali    .    . 
Sassafras  .  . 
Thymi  .  .    . 

THE    XITROGKXATED    OILS. 

The  nitrogenated  or  complex  oils  are  but  few  in  number,  anT  the 
plants  which  yield  them  all  belong  to  the  Rosaces,  and  most  of  them 
to  the  sub-order  Amygdalae.  They  contain  Hydrocyanic  Acid  in 
solution  in  the  oil,  and  are  therefore  poisonous. 

Their  specific  gravity  varies  from  1.04  to  1.07,  boiling  poinu  from 
i7o°C.  to  iXo°C.  and  they  are  acid  to  litmus  paper. 

The  most  important  of  this  group  are:  Oil  of  Cherry-seeds.  Oil  of 
Cherry-laurel  leaves,  and: 

Oil  of  Bitter  AlmonJs. — Oleum  Amygdala?  Amara?.  U.  S  —Ob- 
tained from  Bitter  Almonds  by  crushing  them,  macerating  with  water, 
and  afterward  distilling. 

Its  sp.  gr.  is  i. 060,  soluble  in  300  parts  water,  in  all  proportions  of  alcohol. 


rt-bark .  S.  variifolium 
leaves  .  T.  vuleraris  . 


sp.  gr. 

i  vol.  sol.  in 
ale.  vols. 

.    .    .  0.98  .  . 

.     .  I. 

.     .    .  I-I75  • 
ica- 

•    • 

.    .    .  0.922    . 

.    .  I. 

.    .    .  0.910    . 
.    .  i.  060    . 

.    .   I. 
.    .   I. 

les  .  .  0.970    . 

.     .    .  1.055    . 
.     .    .  0.870    . 
n    .    .  0.960   . 
ns  .    .1.17? 

.    .   I. 
.    .   i. 

s    .    .  0.930    . 

.      .    2. 

.    .    .  0.900   . 

.      .    1. 

.    .    .  0.930    . 

.      .    I  . 

.    .    .  1.045    • 
i.  .    .  0.865    . 

.      .1. 
.   .sp. 

.    .    .  0.970    . 

.  .    .1.070    . 

.    .    .  0.900    . 

.      .    0.5 

240  THE   SULPHURATED   OILS. 

It  usually  contains  50  per  cent  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid,  and  is  therefore  poison- 
ous. 

Off.  Prep. — Aqua  Amygd.  Am.;  Sp.  Amygd.  Am. 

THE    SULPHURATED    OILS. 

The  sulphurated  oils  constitute  a  series  of  pungent  essences  charac- 
terized chemically  by  containing  a  small  proportion  of  Sulphur. 
Most  of  these  oils  are  obtained  from  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Crucifene,  but  Oil  of  Asafoetida  is  derived  from  an  Umbellifer- 
ous, and  Oil  of  Garlic  from  a  Liliaceous  plant. 

Volatile  Oil  of  Mustard. — Oleum  Sinapis  Volatile,  U.  S. — Is  ob- 
tained from  Black  Mustard  by  maceration  with  water,  and  subsequent 
distillation.  It  occurs,  however,  in  other  Cruciferous  plants. 

A  colorless,  pungent  and  acrid  liquid;  sp.  gr.  from  1.018  to  1.029,  boils  at 
i5o°C.  Its  chemical  formula  is  (C3H5)(CNS).  It  is  therefore  a  sulpha-cyanide 
of  allyl. 

Oil  of  Horse-radish  has  the  same  composition. 

Oil  of  Asafcctida  has  the  formula  C12H22S,  or  C]2H22S2,  and  Oil  of  Garlic 
C6HJOS  mixed  with  C6H10O 

CAMPHORS. 

Closely  allied  to  the  volatile  oils  are  the  camphors,  and  some  of  the 
volatile  oils  may  by  long  exposure  to  water  and  the  atmosphere  be 
converted  into  camphors. 

Common  camphor  is  derived  from  the  wood,  branches  and  roots  of 
Cinnamomum  Camphora,  a  tree  which  belongs  to  the  Laurineoe,  and 
grows  in  Eastern  and  Southeastern  Asia.  The  camphor  is  obtained  by 
distillation  of  the  chips  with  water,  and  the  product  is  afterward  puri- 
fied by  sublimation. 

Camphor. — C10HlfiO. — Camphora,  U.  S. — A  stearopten  melting  at 
i75°C.,  boils  at  204°C.;  sp.  gr.  0.995.  It  *s  volatile  at  ordinary 
temperature  and  burns  with  a  sooty  flame. 

Sparingly  soluble  in  water,  readily  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  fixed  and 
volatile  oils. 

Triturated  in  molecular  proportions  with  menthol,  thymol,  phenol,  or 
chloral  hydrate,  liquefaction  ensues. 

Owing  to  the  toughness  of  its  crystals,  it  cannot  be  pulverized  in  a  mortar 
unless  first  moistened  with  alcohol,  ether,  or  volatile  oil.  It  may,  however, 
be  obtained  in  a  finely  divided  state  by  condensing  the  hot  vapors. 

Off.  Prep. — Aqua  Camphorce;  Ceratum  Camphoras;  Ceratum 
Plumbi  Subacetatis;  Linimentum  Belladonna;  Linimentum  Saponis; 
Linimentum  Sinapis  Comp.;  Spiritus  Camphorae,  Tinctura  Opii  Cam- 
phorate. 


THE  CAMPHORS.  241 

Borneo  Camphor  is  of  different  composition,  and  has  the  formula  C,0HlhO.  It 
is  derived  from  fissures  in  the  wood  of  Dryobalanops  Camphora,  a  tree  belong- 
ing to  the  Dipterocarpaceae.  It  grows  in  the  islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra. 

This  camphor  is  slightly  heavier  than  water,  is  less  volatile;  and  by  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  is  converted  intp  ordinary  camphor. 

<.'ii»t/>/ti»-i!  »ii>ni>(»-oni<it(i,  C10H1.)HrO,  a  combination  of  camphor  and  bromine. 
It  has  similar  uses  in  medicine  to  those  of  the  bromine  compounds. 

With  the  Camphors  may  be  classed  the  following  substances: 

Thymol. — Thymol,  T.  S. — A  substance,  chemically  a  phenol,  ob- 
tained from  the  volatile  oils  of  Thymus  vulgaris,  and  Monarda  punc- 
tata,  L.,  and  Carum  Ajowun,  K  and  If. 

l!y  fractional  distillation  the  terpenes  are  separated  and  the  portion 
coming  over  at  i75°C.  is  treated  with  soda,  decomposed  by  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  the  thymol  crystalli/ed  from  an  alcoholic  solution. 

Large,  colorless  crystals,  sp.  gr  1.069,  melts  at  50°.,  sparingly  soluble  in 
water  (1200),  readily  in  alcohol,  ether,  etc  ,  fixed  and  volatile  oils. 

L'si-s. — As  an  antiseptic  and  disinfectant. 

^fcnthol. — C1(iHriOH.  —  Menthol,  U.  S. — A  stearopten  obtained  by 
fractional  distillation  from  American  and  Japanese  peppermint  oils. 

Colorless,  acicular  or  prismatic  crystals,  melting  at  43  C.,  boil  at  212  C., 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  freely  in  alcohol,  ether,  etc. 

f'ses. — It  has  been  used  extensively  as  a  topical  application  in  ner.-ous  head- 
ache. 


Aromatic  Drugs,  Group  III. 

The  Aromatic  Drugs  include  those  vegetable  drugs  whose  chief 
value  consists  in  the  volatile  oil  which  they  contain.  They  are  mostly 
stimulant  and  carminative  in  their  properties. 

A  fe\v  of  them,  Buchu,  Cubeb,  Eucalyptus,  Ginger  and  Valerian, 
are  sufficiently  active  to  be  administered  alone  in  simple  preparations, 
but  the  rest  are  merely  used  as  aromatics  and  adjuvants,  and  enter 
largely  into  various  compounds.  Their  preparations,  with  one  or 
two  exceptions,  precipitate  with  water,  and  in  the  degree  this  precipi- 
tation takes  place,  the  strength  of  the  preparation,  or  the  quality  of 
the  drug  from  which  it  is  prepared,  may  be  roughly  estimated. 

Nearly  all  require  stronger  alcoholic  menstrua  in  their  extraction, 
yet  the  solvent  should  contain  some  water  which,  by  causing  the  cell- 
walls  to  swell,  enables  the  alcohol  to  dissolve  the  active  constituents 
and  facilitate  the  extraction  of  the  drug. 

The  active  principles  or  volatile  oils  of  some  of  the  drugs  belonging 
to  this  class,  especially  those  of  the  Orange  and  Rose  families,  are 
soluble  to  some  extent  in  Syrup,  which  is  the  most  common  form  of 
sxhibition;  they  are,  however,  still  less  soluble  in  water  not  containing 
sugar,  and  such  solutions  can  not,  therefore,  be  so  concentrated  that 
the  syrups  can  be  prepared  from  them  by  admixture  with  simple  syrup. 
Their  principal  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  essential  oils. 

Drugs  may  contain  a  volatile  oil  and  yet  contain  other  constituents,  such  af> 

resins,  tannin  or  glucosides  and  alkaloids.     In  such  cases  reference  is  made  to 

the  Drug  in  this  Group,  but  it  is  described  in  the  particular  Group  in  which- 

through  its  most  active  constituents,  it  would  be  most  appropriately  included. 

Absinthium.  —  [See  Group  4.] 

Anise. — Anisum,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Pimpinella  Anisum,  Linne.   Nat. 
Ord.,    Umbelliferce.      Constituents:      Vol.    oil     about  t\vo  per  cent, 
sugar,  mucilage,  etc.      Off.  Prep.:     Tinctura  Rhei  Dulcis. 
Arnica.  —  Flowers  and  Root.      [See  Group  4.] 

Buchu. — Buchu,  U.  S. — Leaves  of  Barosma  betulina,  Bart.,  B. 
crenulata,  Hook.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rutacere.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil  about 
one  per  cent,  resin,  bitter  principle,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Buchu  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Buchu  was  formerly  official. 

Short  buchu  is  the  only  kind  recognized  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  It  contains  a 
larger  percentage  of  oil  than  the  variety  known  as  "long"  buchu  (Barosma 
serratifolia)  and  is  much  lower  in  price. 


AROMATIC   DRUGS.  243 

Calamus. — Calamus,  U.  S. — Rhizome  of  Acorus  Calamus,  Linne. 
Nat.  Orel.,  Aroidene.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil  one-half  per  cent,  bitter 
principle,  resin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum  Calami  Fluidum. 

Uses. — A  tincture  containing  20  per  cent  of  the  drug  made  with  the  alcohol, 
sp.  gr.  0.892  and  an  extract  with  f>o  per  cent  alcohol,  are  prepared  according  to 
the  Ph.  Ger.  Infusion  is  made  5  per  cent  strength.  A  conserve  is  also  made 
from  the  peeled  root  with  sugar. 

Caraway. — Carum,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Carum  Carui,  Linne.  Xat. 
Ord. ,  L'mbelliferrc.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil  six  per  cent.  Off.  Prep. : 
Tinctura  Cardamom  i  Com  p. 

Csi-s. — As  an  aromatic  in  different  Elixirs  and  "Tonics,"  also  as  condiment, 
and  as  an  ingredient  in  cheese. 

Cantamoni.  —  Cardamomum,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Elettaria  repens, 
Baillon.  Nat.  Ord.,  Scitaminese.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil  four-fifths 
per  cent,  fixed  oil,  mucilage,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Puivis  Aromaticus; 
Tinctura  Cardamom! ;  Tinctura  Cardamom!  composita;  Tinctura 
Gentiana:  comp. ;  Tinctura  Rhei;  Tinctura  Rhei  Dulcis;  Extract. 
Colocynthidis  Comp. 

Malabar  and  Aleppo  constitute  the  shorter  varieties  of  Cardamom,  which  are 
round  in  shape,  while  the  Madras  are  more  elongated.  Good  Cardamom 
should  yield  75  per  cent  of  their  weight  in  seeds. 

Cascarilla. — Cascarilla,  U.  S. — Bark  of  Croton  Eluteria,  Bennett. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Euphorbiaceae.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil  one-fifth  per  cent, 
cascarillin,  and  resin. 

Uses. — Chiefly  as  an  ingredient  in  "fumigating  mixtures.'1  When  incinerated, 
it  gives  off  an  odor  resembling  that  of  musk. 

Extractum  Cascarilla?  Ph.  Ger.  is  prepared  by  exhausting  the  bark  with  hot 
water  and  evaporating  the  liquid. 

Chenopodium. — Chenopodium,  U.  S. — American  Wormseed.  Fruit 
of  Chenopodium  ambrosioides,  var.  anthelminticum.  Gray.  Nat.  Ord., 
Chenopodiacea^.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil. 

f'siS.—ln  the  form  of  infusion  and  for  the  preparation  of  the  volatile  oil. 

Cassia  Cinnamon. — Cinnamomum  Cassia,  U.  S. — Cassia  Bark. 
- — The  bark  of  the  shoots  of  one  or  more  undetermined  species  of  Cin- 
namomum grown  in  China  (Chinese  Cinnamon).  Nat.  Ord.,  Lau- 
rinerc. 

Saigon  Cinnamon. — Cinnamomum  Saigonicum,  U.  S. — The  bark  ot 
an  undetermined  species  of  Cinnamomum. 

Ceylon  Cinnamon. — Cinnamomum  Zeylanicum.  V.'S. — The  inner 
bark  of  the  shoots  of  Cinnamomum  Zeylanicum.  Breyne. 

Constituents. — About  i  per  cent  of  volatile  oil.  and  a   little  tanin. 

Uses. — Cinnamon  is  valuable  in  medicine  chiefly  for  its  carminative  and 
stimulant  virtues  and  for  the  preparation  of  the  volatile  oil. 


244  THE   AROMATIC 

Off.  Prep. — Pulvis  Aromaticus;  Infusum  Digitalis;  Tinctura  Cin- 
namomi;  Tinct.  Cardamomi  comp.;  Tinct.  Catechu  comp. ;  Tinct. 
Lavandulae  comp.;  Tine.  Rhei  Aromat.;  Vinum  Opii;  also  in  numer- 
ous unofficial  preparations  and  in  Elixirs. 

Uses. — In  the  powdered  form  as  a  spice  and  sometimes  for  dusting  pills. 
Cassia  Cinnamon  is  the  kind  mostly  used  for  culinary  purposes;  Saigon  for 
flavoring  cordials,  elixirs,  etc.;  Ceylon  Cinnamon  in  perfumery,  also  for  flavor- 
ing, as  in  preparing  Aqua  Cinnamomi  Ph.  Br. 

Cloves. — Caryophyllus,  U.  S. — Unexpanded  flowers  of  Eugenia  aro- 
matica,  Kuntze.  Nat.  Ord.,  Myrtaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil 
eighteen  per  cent,  caryophyllin,  eugenin,  resin,  tannin,  etc.  Off. 
Prep.:  Tinctura  Lavandulae  comp-;  Tinct.  Rhei  Arom.;  Vinum  Opii, 
and  externally  as  an  ingredient  in  the  unofficial  Spice  Plaster. 

Coriander. — Coriandrum,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Coriandrum  sativum, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Umbelli ferae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one- 
half  per  cent  and  fixed  oil. 

Uses. — To  correct  griping  in  laxative  remedies  as  in  the  official  Confection  of 
Senna;  as  a  very  agreeable  flavor  in  Elixirs,  and  as  a  promoter  of  digestion  in 
the  compound  of  various  spices,  known  as  "Curry  Powder." 

Cubcb. — Cubeba,  U.  S. — Unripe  fruit  of  Piper  Cubeba,  Linne  fil. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Piperaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  ten  per  cent,  resin, 
cubebin,  cubebic  acid.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Cubebae  Fluidum; 
Oleoresina  Cubebae,  Tinctura  Cubebae. 

Cubebic  acid  and  cubebin,  also  described  as  indifferent  resin,  represent  all 
the  medicinal  value  of  cubeb,  the  oil  being  regarded  as  nearly  inert. 

Uses. — Crushed  and  made  into  cigarettes  for  smoking,  powdered  and  mixed 
with  potassium  sulphate  as  Catarrh  Snuff,  and  made  into  a  paste  with  muci- 
lage and  Copaiba  for  °;onorrhoea. 

Eriodictyon. — Eriodictyon,  U.  S. — Verba  Santa. — The  leaves  of 
Eriodictyon  glutinosum,  lientham.  Nat.  Orel.,  Hydrophyllaceae. 
Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  an  acid  and  possibly  a  glucoside.  Off. 
Prep.:  Extractum  Eriodictyi  Fluidum. 

]']ucalyptns.  —  Eucalyptus,  U.  S. — Leaves  of  Eucalyptus  globulus, 
Labillardiere.  Nat.  Ord.,  Myrtaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  six 
per  cent,  resin,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Eucalypti  Fluidum. 

Uses. — :As  an  addition  to  quinine  mixtures,  and  externally  as  a  wash  in  Gan- 
grene, etc.;  also  in  conjunction  with  cubeb  for  smoking  in  Catarrh. 

Fennel. — Fceniculum,  U.  S.  —  Fruit  of  Ftoniculum  capillaceum, 
Gilibert.  Nat.  Ord.,  U"mbelliferae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  about 
four  per  cent,  fixed  oil,  sugar.  Off.  Prep.:  Infusum  Senna?  comp. 

Uses. — In  Species  Laxantes  Ph.  Ger.,  ''St.  Germain"  or  "Hamburger  The" 
and  similar  preparations  to  correct  the  harsh  action  of  purgatives;  also  largely 
as  infusion  for  children. 


DRUGS.  245 

Ginger. — Zingibcr,  U.  S. — Rhizome  of  Zingiber  officinale,  Roscoe. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Scitaminese.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one-half  per  cent, 
gingerol,  resin,  starch,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Zingil>eris 
Fluiclum;  Oleoresina  Zingiberis;  I'ulvis  Aromaticus;  Pulvis  Rhei 
comp. :  Tinctura  Zingiberis. 

Ginger  occurs  in  the  market  usually  with  the  outer  integuments  removed, 
when  it  is  called  "uncoated  ginger;"  it  is  also  frequently  bleached  by  immer- 
sion in  a  solution  of  chlorinated  lime  to  give  it  a  white  appearance.  Of  the 
two  varieties,  the  African  and  the  Jamaica,  only  the  latter  (unbleached)  should 
be  used  in  pharmacy. 

Uses. — Similar  to  the  other  spices,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  "Curry  Powder." 

Hedcoma. — Hedeoma,  U.  S.  —Pennyroyal. —  Leaves  and  flowering 
tops  of  Hedeoma  pulegioides,  Persoon.  Nat.  Ord.,  Labiata;.  Con- 
stituents: Volatile  oil. 

Uses. — As  infusion  to  bring  on  retarded  or  suspended  menstruation. 

Illicinm. — Illicium,  I".  S. — Star-anise. — Fruit  of  Illicium  verum, 
Hooker,  fil.  Nat.  Ord.,  Magnoliaceoe.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil 
about  four  per  cent,  fixed  oil  about  fifteen  per  cent,  and  resin  and 
some  tannin. 

Uses. — As  a  substitute  for  pimpinella  anise  and  as  a  source  of  oil  of  anise. 
It  possesses  a  delicious  flavor. 

Lemon  Peel. — Limonis  Cortex,  U.  S.  —  Rind  of  fruit  of  Citrus 
Limonum,  Risso.  Xat.  Ord.,  Rutaceai.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil 
two  per  cent,  hesperidin.  Off.  Prep.:  Spiritus  Limonis. 

Uses. — For  flavoring,  and  in  the  Spirit  of  Lemon  for  imparting  a  lemon-yel- 
low color  to  the  alcoholic  solution  of  the  oil. 

Mace. — Macis,  U.  S. — The  arilode  of  nutmeg,  the  .seed  of  Myris- 
tica  fragrans,  Houttuyn.  Xat.  Ord.,  M\  risticacea,-.  Constituents: 
Volatile  oil  about  eight  per  cent,  fixed  oil,  resin. 

I'sc-s. — Tincture  of  Mace,  Ph  Ger,  is  prepare'!  by  digesting  one  part  of 
mace  in  five  parts  of  alcohol.  Mace;  is  mostly  used  as  a  condiment,  and  as  it 
cannot  be  powdered  without  addition  of  other  substances,  should  be  used 
whole. 

Marntlnnm.  —  Marrubium.  V.  S.  —  Ilorehound.  —  Leaves  and  tops  of 
Marrubium  vulgare,  Linne.  Nat.  Orel.,  Labiate.  Constituents:  Vola- 
tile oil,  resin,  marrubin.  tannin. 

Uses. — Popularly  as  an  ingredient  in  Cough  Syrups  and  as  Infusion. 

Matico. —  [Sec  Croup  4.] 

J/i'//V.*w. — Melissa.  I'.  S.  . —  Halm.  —  Leaves  and  tops  of  Melissa 
officinalis.  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Labiate.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil 
one-sixth  percent,  tannin,  bitter  extractive. 

Uses. — For  preparing  Aqua  Melissa  Ph  Gcr.  by  distillation  with  water1  also 
in  a  French  preparation.  "Eau  do  Carmes,"  or  Compound  Spirit  of  Balm. 


246  THE   AROMATIC 

Nutmeg.—  Myristica,  U.  S.— The  seed  of  Myristica  fragrans,  Hout- 
tuyn.  Nat.  Ord.,  Myristicaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  about  five 
percent,  and  fixed  oil  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent.  Off.  Prep.: 
Pulvis  Aromaticus;  Acetum  Opii;  Tinctura  Lavandulre  composita; 
Tinct.  Rhei  Arom.;  and  as  a  flavor  in  several  official  Troches 

Bitter  Orange  Peel. — Aurantii  Amari  Cortex,  U.  S. — Rind  of  fruit 
of  Citrus  vulgaris,  Risso.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rutacere.  Constituents:  Vola- 
tile oil  and  hesperidin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Aurantii  Amari  Fluidum; 
Tinctura  Aurantii  Amari;  Tinct.  Cinchonte  comp.;  Tinct.  Gentianas 
comp. 

Uses. — Owing  to  its  large  percentage  of  bitter  principle,  Bitter  Orange  Peel 
is  used  in  the  several  official  tinctures,  and  also  in  many  unofficial  tonics  and 
bitters.  The  volatile  oil,  while  present  in  much  smaller  quantity  than  in  the 
Sweet  Orange  Peel,  is  largely  used,  and  sometimes  preferred  to  that  of  the 
latter.  The  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  unripe  fruit  of  bitter  orange  (orange 
berries)  called  essence  de  petit  grain,  is  similar  in  chemical  composition,  but  dif- 
fers in  the  physical  characteristics  of  taste  and  odor. 

Sweet  Orange  Peel. — Aurantii  Dulcis  Cortex,  U.  S. — Rind  of  fruit 
of  Citrus  Aurantium,  Risso.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rutaceae.  Constituents: 
Volatile  oil  and  hesperidin.  Off.  Prep.:  Syrupus  Aurantii  Coit. ; 
Tinctura  Aurantii  Dulcis. 

Uses. — The  fresh  rind,  when  obtainable,  should  always  be  given  the  prefer- 
ence over  the  dried,  when  used  for  flavoring  purposes.  A  tincture  is  made  by 
macerating  the  yellow  exterior  portion,  deprived  of  the  inner  white  fleshy  por- 
tion, with  alcohol,  and  expressing.  It  is  the  chief  flavor  for  Elixirs. 

Pepper.  —  Piper.  V .  S. — Black  Pepper. — Unripe  fruit  of  Piper 
nigrum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Piperacens.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one- 
half  per  cent,  piperin,  pungent  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Oleoresina  Piperis. 

L'st-s. — Sometimes  as  an  addition  to  Anti-Chill  Pills  to  render  other  remedies, 
such  as  quinine,  more  active.  It  is  the  best  known  and  most  largely  used  of 
all  condiments.  The  powder  is  often  largely  adulterated. 

Peppermint. — Mentha  Piperita,  U.  S. — Leaves  and  tops  of  Mentha 
piperita,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Labiatae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one 
per  cent,  pipmenthol,  resin,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Spiritus  Mentha; 
Piperitae. 

Uses. — Almost  exclusively  for  obtaining  oil  of  Peppermint;  also  for  impart- 
ing a  green  color  to  the  alcoholic  solution  of  the  oil  in  Essence  of  Peppermint, 
and  as  Infusion. 

Pimenta. — Pimenta,  U.  S. — Allspice.  —  Nearly  ripe  fruit  of  Pimenta 
officinalis,  Lindley.  Nat.  Ord.,  Mvrtacere.  Constituents:  Volatile 
oil  three-fourths  per  cent,  resin,  tannin,  etc. 

L'M-S. — Exclusively  as  a  condiment  and  for  obtaining  the  oil,  which  is  used  in 
the  preparation  of  "Bay  Rum." 


DRUGS.  247 

Pale  Rose. — Rosa  Centifolia,  U.  S. — Petals  of  Rosa  centifolia, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rosaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  sugar, 
mucilage,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Syrupus  Sarsaparillre  compositus. 

I'sfs. — In  perfumery;  in  the  distillation  of  Rose  Water  and  in  Fumigating 
Powder. 

Red  Rose, — Rosa  Gallica,  U.  S. — Petals  of  Rosa  Gallica,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Rosacece.  Collected  before  flowers  are  fully  expanded. 
Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  sugar,  mucilage,  quercitrin.  Off.  Prep.: 
Pilulie  Aloes  et  Mastiches;  Confectio  Rosae.;  Extractum  Rosoe  Fluidum; 
Mel  Rosa,'. 

Uses. — The  Infusion,  formerly  official,  containing  sugar  and  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  as  a  vehicle  for  bitter  drugs,  i.  <'.,  magnesium  sulphate  and  quinine;  also 
as  a  gargie  for  sore  throat. 

Saffron. — Crocus,  U.  S. — Stigmas  of  Crocus  sativus,  Linne.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Iridere.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  crocin.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinct- 
ura  Croci;  also  Syrupus  Croci,  French  Codex. 

I'scs. — Chiefly  as  a  dye  and  as  infusion  to  produce  diaphoresis  in  "measles." 
It  enters  also  largely  into  preparations  of  the  older  Pharmacopoeias.  Saffron. 
•  is  largely  adulterated;  the  so-called  American  Saffron  is  from  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent plant  (Carthamus),  and  should  not  be  dispensed  as  a  substitute  for 
Crocus. 

Salvia. — Salvia,  U.  S. — Sage. — Leaves  of  Salvia  officinalis,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Labiatai.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  percent,  resin,  tannin,  extractive  matter. 

f'si's. — Infusion  in  sore  mouth  and  as  a  gargle  in  sore  throat. 

Sambucus. — Sambucus,  U.  S. —  Elder. — Flowers  of  Sambucus  Cana- 
densis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Caprifoliacene.  Constitutents:  Volatile  oil, 
resin,  mucilage,  etc. 

i'ji's. — In  compound  Syrup  of  Stillingia;  in  Species  Laxantes  Ph.  Ger.  ana 
as  Infusion. 

Sassafras. — Sassafras,  U.  S. — Root  bark  of  Sassafras  variifolium, 
Kuntze.  Nat.  Ord.,  Laurineoj.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  four  per 
cent,  tannin  six  per  cent,  sassafrid  nine  per  cent.  Off.  Prep.:  Decoc- 
tum  Sarsaparillse  comp. ;  Extractum  Sarsaparilloe  comp.  fiuidum. 

L'sc-s. — Chiefly  in  the  preparation  of  the  oil  of  sassafras  by  distillation;  in  in- 
fusion as  "tea'1  for  purifying  the  blood,  and  in  Species  Lignorum  Ph.  Ger. 

Scutellaria. — Scutellaria,  LT.  S. — Skullcap. — Plant  of  Scutellaria 
lateriflora,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Labiatre.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil, 
bitter  principle,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Scutellarias  Fluidum. 

Spearmint. — Mentha  viridis,  L'.  S. — Leaves  and  tops  of  Mentha 
viridis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Labiatae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  about 
one-half  per  cent,  resin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Spiritus  Mentha;  Viridis. 


248  THE   AROMATIC 

Sumbul. — Sumbul,  U.  S. — Root  of  Ferula  Sumbul,  Hooker  filius. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Umbelliferre.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one-third  per  cent, 
angelic  and  valerianic  acids  and  bitter  extractive.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinct- 
ura  Surnbul. 

Tansy. — Tanacetum,  U.  S.  —  Leaves  and  tops  of  Tanacetum  vulgare, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Composite.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one-fourth 
per  cent,  bitter  principle,  resin,  tannin. 

Uses. — Infusion  to  bring  on  suspended  menstruation,  and  in  the  preparation 
of  the  oil. 

Thuja. — [See  Group  4.] 

Valerian.  —  Valeriana,  U.  S. — Rhizome  and  rootlets  of  Valeriana 
officinalis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Valerianeae.  Constituents:  Volatile 
oil  one-half  to 'two  percent,  valerianic,  formic  and  acetic  acids,  and 
resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Valerianse  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Valer- 
ianae;  Tinctura  Valerians  Ammoniata. 

Two  kinds  of  Valerian  are  found  in  the  market,  viz. :  English  and  German, 
the  former  being  regarded  as  representing  the  medicinally  valuble  constituents 
in  a  higher  degree  than  the  German.  It  should  always  be  given  the  preference, 
but  never  used  until  freed  from  adhering  dirt  by  washing  with  water. 

U-srs. — Infusion  and  the  powder  in  the  form  of  pills. 

Extract  of  Valerian  was  discarded  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80,  the  Abstract 
taking  its  place;  the  abstract  represents  the  drug  quite  as  fully  as  the  extract, 
and  may  be  dispensed  in  the  same  dose. 

Vanilla.—  Vanilla,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Vanilla  planifolia,  Andrews.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Orchideoe.  Constituents:  Vanillin, fixed  oil,  resin.  Off.  Prep.: 
Tinctura  Vanillre. 

frsfs — As  a  flavoring  agent  in  the  form  of  Tincture,  or  triturated  to  a  fine 
powder  with  sugar  of  milk  or  rock-candy — frequently  with  an  admixture  of 
Tonka. 


DRUGS. 


249 


UNOFFICIAL    AROMATIC    DRUGS. 


COM.  NAME. 

BOT.  NAME. 

PART 
USED. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Achillas  (Yellow). 

Achillaea  millefolium. 

Herb. 

Vol.    oil,    achi  Heine, 

resin,  tannin. 

Angelica. 

Archangelica  officials. 

Root. 

Vol.  oil,  acids,  resins. 

Angelica     (Amer). 

Archangelica  atropurpurea 

Root. 

(Same  as  above). 

Apium. 

Apium  graveolens. 

Fruit. 

Vol.  oil,  fixed  oil,  etc. 

Artemisia. 

Artemisia  vulgaris. 

Herb. 

Vol.  oil,  bitter  principle 

Asarum     (Canada 

Asarum  Canadense. 

R'zome, 

Vol.      oil      3^,     resin, 

Snake  Root.) 

coloring  matter. 

Benzoin  Bush. 

Benzoin  odoriferum. 

Bk;  Fruit. 

Vol.  oil,  tannin. 

Canella. 

Canella  alba. 

Bark.     - 

Vol.  oil,  resin,  bit.  prin. 

Cataria. 

Nepeta  Cataria. 

Herb. 

Vol.  oil,  bitter  prin'l. 

Comptonia. 

Comptonia  asplendifolia. 

Leaves. 

Vol.  oil,   resin,   tannin, 

alkaloid? 

Cotula  (Maywood) 

Maruta  Cotula. 

Herb. 

Vol.   oil,  anthemic  and 

valeric    acids,    acrid 

fixed  oil. 

Erigeron 

Erigeron  Canadensis. 

Herb. 

Vol.  oil,  bitter  prin'l. 

(Fleabane). 

Gaultheria. 

Gaultheria  procumbens. 

Leaves. 

Vol.     oil,    5#    (methyl 

salicylate),     ericolin, 

tannin,  etc. 

Glechoma. 

Glechoma  Hederaceae. 

Herb. 

Vol.  oil,  bitter  prin'l. 

Golden  Rod. 

Solidago  odora. 

Herb. 

Volatile  oil. 

Hyssop. 

Hyssopus  officinalis. 

Herb. 

Vol.    oil,    bitter  princi- 

ple, tannin. 

Imperatoria. 

[•nperatoria  ostruthium. 

Root. 

Vol.  oil,  Imperatorin. 

Iris  (orris). 

Iris  Florentina. 

R'zome. 

Vol.    oil,    resin,    bitter 

extractive,  starch. 

Juniper. 

Juniperus  communis. 

Twigs. 

Vol.  oil,  resin. 

Laurel. 

Laurus  nobilis. 

Leaves. 

Vol.  oiland  bitter  prin'l 

Lavender. 

Lavandula  vera. 

flowers. 

Vol.    oil,    i/-2/£,    resin, 

tannin. 

Levisticum 

Levisticum  officinale. 

Root. 

Vol.  oil,  bitter  extract- 

(Lovage). 

ive,  resins. 

Marjoram. 

Origanum  marjorana. 

Herb. 

Volatile  oil. 

Micromeria. 

Micromeria  Douglassii. 

Herb. 

Volatile  oil. 

Origanum. 

Origanum  vulgare. 

Herb. 

Vol.  oil   i#,  resin,  bit- 

ter principle. 

Parsley. 

Petroselinum  sativum. 

Root    and 

Vol.  oil,  apiin. 

Seed. 

Pimpernel. 

Pimpinella  saxifraga. 

Root. 

Vol.  oil  and  acrid  resin. 

Rosmarinus. 

Rosmarinus  officinalis. 

Leaves. 

Vol.  oil  I*/?,  resin,  tan- 

nin. 

Rhus  (aromatic).     Rhus  aromatica. 

Root-bk. 

Vol.  oil,  resin,    tannin. 

Sandalwoud.           ISantalum  album. 

Wood. 

Vol.  oil,  resin. 

Sarsaparilla             Aralia  nudicaulis.                   R'zome. 

Vol.  oil,  and  resin. 

(False). 

Spikenard  (Amer).  Aralia  racemosa.                     R  z;  Root.  Vol.  oil  and  resin. 

Thyme.                      Thymus  vulgaris.                    Herb. 

Vol.  oil,  resin. 

Turmeric.                  Curcuma  longa.                       R'zome. 

Vol.  oil,  pungent  resin. 

Wintera.                    Drimys  \Yinteri.                     Bark. 

Vol.    oil,    tannin,    pun- 

gent resin. 

Xanthoxylum          Xanthoxylum  fraxineum.     Fruits. 

Vol.  oil,  resin. 

(Prickly  Ash.) 

Zedoaria.                  Curcuma  Zedoaria.                R'zome.     iVol.  oil,  pungent  resin. 

Resins  and  Oleoresins. 

Resins  zre  solid,  usually  amorphous,  vegetable  products,  com- 
monly with  a  conchoidal  fracture,  soluble  in  alcohol  and  usually  also 
in  the  fixed  oils  but  not  in  water,  transparent  or  semi-transparent, 
readily  fusible,  inflammable,  and  burning  with  a  sooty  flame,  not 
volatilizing  without  undergoing  chemical  change  and  negatively  elec- 
trified by  friction.  Some  contain  acids,  and  with  the  alkalies  are 
capable  of  forming  soaps;  others  are  neutral,  and  can  not  be  saponified. 

Composition. — The  Resins  are  complex  bodies,  being  mostly  mix- 
tures of  different  compounds  of  Carbon,  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen. 
Shellac,  for  instance,  consists  of  five  different  resins  and  a  coloring 
matter.  Amber  is  a  mixture  of  Succinic  Acid  and  several  resins; 
Sandarac  consist  of  three  resins,  which  differ  in  solubility,  but  are  not 
soluble  in  water,  and  a  fourth  constituent,  a  bitter  principle,  which  is 
soluble  in  water. 

Origin. — The  resins  are  widely  distributed  through  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  there  being  very  few  plants  that  are  entirely  destitute  of 
them,  while  some  secrete  them  in  large  proportion.  Sometimes  they 
are  diffused  through  all  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  sometimes  they  are 
collected  together  in  certain  parts,  as  in  the  heart-wood  in  Guaiac; 
sometimes  they  are  accumulated  in  certain  special  secretion  cells,  and 
these  cells  may  be  isolated,  collected  together  in  masses,  or  coalescent, 
forming  tubes  or  ducts;  or  these  secretions  may  be  poured  into  inter- 
cellular spaces,  and  these  may  be  small  isolated  areas,  or  they  may 
form  tubes  in  the  leaves,  wood  or  bark,  following  the  direction  in 
length  of  the  organ  in  which  they  occur. 

The  mode  of  formation  of  the  resins  is  obscure,  but  they  are  probably  to  be 
regarded  as  degradation  products,  resulting  from  the  partial  breaking  down  of 
vegetable  tissues.  It  has  been  observed  in  some  instances  that,  as  resin  ac- 
cumulates in  a  tissue,  the  cell-walls  of  that  tissue  become  thinner  and  finally 
disappear.  Resin  would  appear,  therefore,  to  be,  in  these  cases  at  least,  the 
product  of  the  retrograde  metamorphosis  of  cellulose  or  lignin.  But  that  the 
change  is  not  immediate,  but  first  into  Volatile  Oil  and  then  into  Resin,  is  in- 
dicated by  the  fact  that  most  Volatile  Oils,  on  standing  exposed  to  light  and  air, 
partially  change  into  Resin,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  Resin  appears  always  to 
exist  in  the  plant  associated  with  volatile  oil. 

Some  of  the  resins  are  used  medicinally  but  the  larger  portion  of 
them  are  chiefly  valuable  for  varnishes. 


THE  OLEORESINS.  251 

THE  OLEORESINS. 

The  Oleoresins,  like  the  resins,  are  of  vegetable  origin,  and  con- 
sist of  mixtures  in  various  proportions  of  resins  with  volatile  oils.  They 
therefore  partake  of  the  characters  of  both. 

The  Oleoresins  may  be  divided  into: 

(1)  Natural  Oleoresins  to  which  belong  Copaiba,  the  Turpentines 
and  Pitches,  and 

(2)  Pharmaceutical  Oleoresins,  a  Class  of  Preparations  made  by 
extracting  Olcorcsinous  Drugs  with  Ether  and  evaporation  to  a  semi- 
liquid  extract. 

These  are  the  only  kind  having  the  official  title  "Oleoresin"  in  the  U.  S.  Ph., 
and  are  made  from  the  following  drug;;:  Aspidium,  Capsicum,  Cubeb,  Lupulin, 
Pepper  and  Ginger.  They  are  described  with  the  Pharmaceutical  Prepara- 
tions in  a  following  Lecture. 

Only  the  natural  Oleoresins  will  be  here  considered. 

COPAIBA. 

Copaiba. — Copaiba,  U.  S. — Commonly  called  Balsam  of  Copaiba. 
The  Oleoresin  obtained  from  Copaiba  Langsdorffii,  Kuntze,  and 
other  species  of  Copaifera,  by  boring  holes  into  the  heart-wood;  the 
oleoresin  being  contained  in  ducts,  frequently  of  large  size,  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  trunk. 

Light  yellow  or  brownish  yellow,  transparent  or  somewhat  turbid,  viscid 
liquid,  with  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor  and  an  acrid,  bitter,  and  nauseous  taste. 
Sp.  gr.  from  0.94  to  0.99,  increasing  with  age;  soluble  in  strong  alcohol,  benzol, 
and  carbon  disulphide,  fixed  and  volatile  oils;  insoluble  in  water  but  yields  a 
transparent  mixture  with  one-third  its  volume  of  ammonia  water. 

The  principal  kinds  of  Copaiba  are: 

Para  Copaiba,  limpid,  light-colored  and  transparent,  and  contains  from  70  to 
85  per  cent  of  volatile  oil. 

Rio  Janeiro  and  Maranliani  Copaiba  resemble  eacfh  other  closely;  denser  than 
Para;  usually  contain  from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  volatile  oil. 

Maracaiho  Copaiba,  still  denser,  deeper  colored,  often  somewhat  turbid;  does 
not  usually,  like  the  other  Copaibas,  yield  a  clear  mixture  with  one-third  of  its 
volume  of  ammonia  water;  contains  only  from  20  to  40  per  cent  of  volatile  oil, 
and  solidifies  with  magnesia. 

Adulterations. — Castor  and  other  fixed  oils,  turpentine  and  other  volatile  oils, 
and  other  oleoresins,  as  Gurjun  balsam.  Fixed  oils  are  detected  by  the  sticky 
residue  left  behind  on  evaporating  the  volatile  oil,  by  the  greasy  areo'a  left 
around  the  resin  when  a  drop  of  the  suspected  article  has  its  volatile  oil 
volatilized  from  paper,  and  by  the  fact  that  most  fixed  oils  are  insoluble  in 
alcohol.  Volatile  oils,  are  recognized  usually  by  their  odor  when  warmed. 

The  presence  of  "Gurjun  Balsam"  is  detected  by  the  violet  coloration  prc» 
duced  by  the  addition  of  i  drop  of  a  cold  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids 
to  a  solution  of  i  drop  of  copaiba  in  19  drops  carbon  disulphide. 


252  TURPENTINES. 

Constituents. — Volatile  oil;  copaivic,  oxycopaivic,  or  metacopaivic  acid; 
various  resins,  and  a  bitter  principle  soluble  in  water. 

Uses.. — Expectorant,  diuretic  and  stimulant  usually  in  the  form  of  Emulsion, 
Paste  or  Pill.  Also  applied  externally. 

Off.  Prep. — Massa  Copaibae,  a  compound  of  Copaiba  with  Magnesia. 

Gurjun  Oleo-Rcsin,  commonly  called  Gurjun  Balsam. — Product  of 
Dipterocarpus  turbinatus,  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus  ^f  trees, 
indigenous  to  India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

Obtained  by  making  deep  incisions  in  the  trunk,  and  then  charring 
it,  causing  the  oleoresin  to  flow  freely. 

It  closely  resembles  the  more  viscid  forms  of  Copaiba  in  odor,  but  to  the 
taste  is  more  bitter  and  not  acrid.  When  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about 
130  C.,  it  become  gelatinous,  and  does  not  resume  its  fluidity  on  cooling.  Sp. 
gr.  from  0.95  to  0.96;  entirely  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide,  chloroform,  and  the 
volatile  oils,  but  only  partly  so  in  alcohol,  and  petroleum  benzin. 

Constituents. — Gurjunic  acid,  resin  and  volatile  oil. 

Uses. — Similar  to  those  of  Copaiba. 

THE    TURPENTINES. 

Several  turpentines  are  used  in  pharmacy,  and  all  but  one  of  them, 
Cyprus  turpentine,  are  the  products  of  trees  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Coniferae.  Cyprus  turpentine  is  the  product  of  one  of  the 
Anacardiece. 

The  Volatile  Oils  in  all  of  them  are  identical  in  chemical  structure, 
though  different  somewhat  in  odor.  Their  chemical  formula  when 
pure  is  C10HJ(, 

Common  Turpentine.  —  Terebinthina,  U.  S. — Commonly  called 
"gum"  or  "pitch"  turpentine.  A  concrete  oleoresin  obtained  as  an 
exudation  from  Pinus  palustris.  Miller,  and  other  species  of  Pines. 

In  yellowish,  opaque,  tough  masses,  brittle  in  the  cold,  of  a  terebinthinate 
odor  and  taste,  containing  about  30  per  cent  of  volatile  oil  and  resin. 

Uses. — Diaphoretic,  diuretic,  stimulant  and  astringent.  Used  externally  in 
ointments  and  plasters.  Its  principal  use  is  in  the  preparation  of  "turpentine" 
oil,  which  is  obtained  by  distillation,  the  residue  being  '"rosin." 

Canada  Turpentine. — Terebinthina  Canaclensis.  U.  S. — A  liquid  or 
semi-liquid  oleoresin  obtained  as  an  exudation  from  the  Balsam  Fir, 
Abies  balsamea,  Miller. 

Transparent  when  pure,  slightly  yellowish  or  greenish,  viscid,  odor  and  taste 
similar  to  common  turpentine,  but  more  agreeable,  with  age  hardening,  and 
acquiring  a  distinct  yellow  color. 

Composition. — Volatile  oil  and  two  resins,  one  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  the 
other  with  difficulty. 

Uses. — Stimulant,  diaphoretic,  diuretic.  Mostly  used  externally.  Used  ex- 
tensively as  a  mounting  medium  in  microscopy. 


PITCHES.  253 

Venice  Turpentine. — Terebinthina  Vcneta. — Product  of  the  European  larch, 
Larix  Europx-a.  Secreted  in  the  heart-wood,  and  is  obtained  by  boring  holes 
to  the  center  of  the  tree  and  dipping  the  liquid  out  as  it  accumulates.  . 

Dense,  nearly  colorless,  transparent,  fluorescent  liquid  of  a  terebinthinate 
odor  and  an  aromatic,  acrid,  and  bitter  taste. 

Composition. — Volatile  oil,  two  or  more  resins,  and  succinic  acid.  Com- 
pletely soluble  in  alcohol. 

I'ses.- — Stimulant,  diuretic  and  diaphoretic.  Also  used  externally  in  oint- 
ments and  plasters. 

Strasburg  Turpentine. — Terebinthina  Argentoratensis.  Product  of  Abies 
pectinata. 

Resembles  Canada  Ralsam  in  its  composition,  properties  and  uses.  Odor 
more  agreeable.  Contains  a  small  amount  of  succinic  acid. 

Cvprian  or  Chian  Turpentine. — Terebinthina  Chia. — Product  of  Pistacia 
terebinthus,  natural  order  Anacardicx.  Obtained  from  incisions  in  the  bark 
of  the  tree. 

Transparent  or  nearly  so,  semi-fluid  or  hardened,  brownish  or  greenish-yel- 
low in  color;  taste  somewhat  bitter,  odor  balsamic,  somewhat  fennel-like. 

Composition. — Volatile  oil  and  two  resins,  one  soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  the 
other  insoluble. 

L'scs. — Similar  to  those  of  other  turpentines. 

Bio-guniiy  Pitch. — Fix  Burgundica,  U.  S. — Exudation  product  of 
Abies  excelsa,  or  Norway  Spruce  Fir,  a  native  of  Central  and  North- 
ern Europe. 

Hard,  but  yielding  without  fracture  to  slowly  graduated  pressure,  semi-trans- 
parent or  opaque,  yellowish  or  brownish,  fracture  shining,  conchoidal;  odor 
aromatic;  taste  agreeable.  Almost  entirely  soluble  in  glacial  acetic  acid  or  in 
boiling  alcohol  and  partly  soluble  in  cold  alcohol. 

Composition. — Volatile  oil,  probably  C1(JH1(;,   resin,  and  a  little  water. 

Uses. — For  ointments  and  plasters. 

Off.  Prep. — Emplastrum  Picis  Burgundicoe;  Emplastrum  Picis 
Can  thari  datum. 

Hemlock  Pitch. — Pix  Canadensis. — Exudation  product  of  common 
Hemlock,  Abies  Canadensis.  No*;  official. 

Dark  reddish  brown  in  color,  with  a  weak  terebinthinate,  balsamic  odor,  and 
resembles  in  its  composition,  properties  and  uses,  Burgundy  pitch. 

Tar. — Pix  Eiquida,  U.  S. — Products  of  the  destructive  distillation 
of  the  wood  of  various  species  of  Pine;  was  described  with  the  products 
of  destructive  distillation  of  wood. 


254  THE   RESINS. 

THE  RESINS. 

The  Resins  may  be  divided  into  (i)  Resins  obtained  from  Oleo- 
resins,  by  separation  from  the  Oil  by  distillation,  (2)  natural  exuda- 
tions and  (3)  resins  extracted  from  resinous  Drugs.  The  latter  class 
are  treated  with  the  Pharmaceutical  Preparations  in  a  subsequent 
Lecture. 

To  the  first  Class  belong: 

Resin. — Resina,  U.  S. — Common  Rosin  or  Colophony. — The  resi- 
due after  distilling  the  volatile  oil  from  the  Oleoresin  of  Turpentine. 

The  residue  while  hot,  is  drawn  off  and  passed  through  a  series  of  strainers, 
when  on  cooling  it  constitutes  the  commercial  "rosin."  The  color  of  the  prod- 
uct varies  according  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  distillation  takes  place. 

Transparent,  light  or  dark  amber  colored  masses,  having  a  vitreous  fracture, 
fusible  at  about  ioo°C.,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  in  both  volatile  and  fixed 
oils;  odor  and  taste  somewhat  terebinthinate. 

Constituents. — Chiefly  abietic  anhydride. 

Uses — Mainly  fcr  ointments  and  plasters. 

Off.  Prep. — Ceratum  Resinae;  Emplastrum  Resinse. 

Copaiba  Resin. — Resina  Copaibse,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  the  Oleo- 
resin of  Copaiba  by  distilling  off  the  volatile  oil. 

Amorphous,  yellowish,  or  brownish-yellow  brittle  masses,  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  carbon  disulphide,  benzol,  and  the  volatile  oils;  odor  similar  to  that  of 
the  oleoresin;  the  alcoholic  solution  is  somewhat  acrid  and  bitter,  and  acid  in 
its  reaction. 

Composition. — A  mixture  of  copaivic  and  metacopaivic  acids  w7ith  more  or  less 
neutral  resin. 

Uses. — Same  as  those  of  the  oleoresin,  which  see. 

To  the  Natural  Resins  belong  the  following: 

Official:   Guaiac  and  Mastiche. 

Unofficial:  Elemi,  Amber  and  the  following  used  almost  exclusively 
for  varnishes:  Copal,  Dammar,  Sandarac,  Lac  and  Asphalt. 

Guaiac. — Guaiaci  Resina,  U.  S. — Product  of  Gtiaiacum  officinale, 
and  G.  sanctum,  West  India  and  South  American  trees,  belonging  to 
the  Nat.  Orel.  Zygophyllea?.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the  heart-wood. 

Obtained  partly  as  natural  exudation,  partly  from  incisions  in  the  trunks 
of  living  trees,  and  partly  by  setting  fire  to  billets  of  wood  that  have  been  chan- 
neled on  one  side,  the  resin  as  it  fuses  flowing  out  along  the  groove. 

In  tears  or  irregular  masses  more  or  less  intermixed  with  splinters  of  wood 
and  particles  of  dirt.  In  thin  pieces,  transparent,  lustre  vitreous,  fracture 
brittle  and  somewhat  conchoidal,  color  greenish  or  reddish-brown,  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  caustic  potassa,  but  not  in  oil  of  turpentine  or  benzol.  The  freshly 
prepared  powder  is  whitish,  but  soon  turns  green  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and 
its  powder  or  solution  is  rapidly  turned  green  by  nitric  acid  and  other  powerful 
oxidizing  agents. 


RESINS.  255 

Composition. — Complex,  consisting  of  guaiacic  acid,  guaiac  yellow,  guaiaretic 
acid,  betaresin,  a  small  proportion  of  gum,  ash,  etc. 

Uses. — Stimulant,  diuretic  and  alterative,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  Mixture 
or  Emulsion. 

Off.  Prep. — Pil.  Antimonii  comp. .  Tinctura  Guaiaci;  Tinctura 
Guaiaci  Ammoniata. 

Mastich. — Mastiche,  U.  S. — Product  of  Pistacia  Lentiscus.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Anacardierc,  small  tree,  indigenous  to  the  basin  ol  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Obtained  from  vertical  incisions  into  the  bast  layer  of  the 
trunk  and  larger  branches 

In  rounded  or  enlongated  tears  about  the  size  of  peas,  brittle,  with  a  con- 
choidal  fracture,  transparent  when  free  from  the  powdery  dust  which  usually 
adheres  to  them,  of  a  light  yellow  color,  partly  soluble  in  alcohol,  entirely  so 
in  ether  and  the  volatile  oils,  the  alcoholic  solution  acid  in  its  reaction,  odor 
faintly  balsamic,  taste  somewhat  terebinthinous,  softening  in  the  mouth. 

Constituents. — Mastichic  acid,  about  go'/r ,  soluble  in  alcohol;  Masticin,  solu- 
ble in  hot  alcohol;  and  a  trace  of  volatile  oil. 

Uses. — Mild  astringent  and  masticatory;  also  for  varnishes  and  cements. 

Off.  Prep. — Pilulac  Aloes  et  Mastiches. 

Elemi. — A  resinous  exudation  obtained  from  various  sources: 

Manila  Elaui,  exudation   from   Canarium  commune,  Nat.  Ord.  Burseracea?. 

Brazilian  Elcnii,  from  Icica  Icicariba  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus. 

Mexican  Elcini,  supposed  to  be  the  product  of  Amyris  elemifera;  and 

Mauritius  Eh'tni,  from  Colophonia  Mauritiana. 

Manila  Elemi  is  the  most  important.  Crystalline,  yellowish,  soft,  friable 
when  old;  taste  pungent,  disagreeable,  bitter;  odor  aromatic,  balsamic. 

Composition. — Volatile  oil  (Ci0H16),  elemic  acid,  crystalline  resin,  and  amor- 
phous resins. 

Uses.  —  Stimulant  and  irritant;  externally  in  ointment  and  plasters. 

Cofal  Resin. — Chiefly  found  fossil  in  Zan/.ibars  and  other  parts  of 
Africa,  nut  i\also  obtained  from  various  tropical  leguminous  trees. 

Large  irregular  pieces,  usually  finely  verrucose  at  the  surface,  hard,  trans- 
parent or  translucent,  resembling  amber;  inodorous,  tasteless,  difficultly  fysibi-?- 
fracture  conchoidal. 

Constituents. — Several  different  resins. 

Dammar  Resin^  or  Dammara. — Obtained  from  two  different  species 
of  coniferous  trees,  Dammara  Orientalis,  Mast  Indies;  and  Dammara 
Australis,  New  Zealand.  It  is  a  spontaneous  exudation.  The  New 
Zealand  Dammar  or  "Kauri  Gum"  sometimes  occurs  fossil. 

Roundish,  transparent,  yellowish,  inodorous,  tasteless  masses,  that  have  a 
glossy,  conchoidal  fracture.  It  is  not  so  hard  as  copal,  mehs  at  a  temperature 
somewhat  above  100  C.,  is  somewhat  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  more  so  in  chloro- 
form and  benzol. 

Ci'Hslitiicnt.;. — Several  different  resins. 

Uses. — Sometimes  in  preparation  of  plasters,  more  commonly  for  varnishes. 


256  RESINS. 

Samlarac  Resin,  or  Sandarac. — Spontaneous  exudation  from  the 
stem  of  a  small  African  tree,  Callitris  quadrivalvis;  Nat.  Ord.  Conifers. 

Resembles  mastiche  and  is  sometimes  used  to  adulterate  it.  It  differs  in  oc- 
curring in  more  elongated  tears,  in  becoming  powdered  when  masticated,  and 
in  being  almost  completely  soluble  in  alcohol. 

Three  different  resins  and  a  bitter  principle  soluble  in  water. 

Shellac,  or  Lacca. — Product  of  a  variety  of  East  Indian  and  a  few 
Mexican  plants.  An  exudation  produced  by  the  puncture  of  ahemip- 
terous  insect,  the  female  of  Coccus  lacca.  The  lac  of  commerce 
comes  chiefly  from  India,  and  the  most  important  trees  which  produce 
it  are  a  spurge,  the  Aleuritis  laccifera,  and  a  fig,  the  Ficus  Indica. 

Lac  occurs  in  the  following  forms:  Stick  lac  consists  of  the  thin  twigs  of  the 
tree  covered  with  the  resinous  exudation.  Seed  lac,  of  the  glossy  fragments 
that  have  been  detached  from  the  twigs;  and  Lump  lac,  that  obtained  by  boil- 
ing the  stick  or  seed  lac  with  water,  and  melting  the  product  into  cakes. 

Shellac,  of  reddish  or  orange  colored  transparent  flakes,  brittle,  tasteless 
and  glossy,  and  produced  in  the  same  way  as  lump  lac,  only  dried  or  hardened 
in  thin  plates  instead  of  in  masses. 

Constituents. — Complex;  five  different  resins,  and  some  coloring  matter. 

L'scs. — Chiefly  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes  and  sealing  wax. 

Amber,  or  Succinum. — Fossil  product  of  an  extinct  coniferous  tree, 
Pinitissuccinifer,  and  probably  also  of  other  species.  Obtained  princi- 
pally from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  where  it  is  cast  up  by  the  waves. 

Hard,  brittle,  transparent,  or  translucent,  yellowish  or  reddish-brown  irregu- 
lar masses;  melts  at  2SS:C.,  and  at  that  temperature  gives  off  succinic  acid 
Scarcely  soluble  at  all  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  the  volatile  oils,  but  somewhat  solu- 
ble in  chloroform. 

Constituents. — Various  resins  and  succinic  acid. 

£V->\ — Source  of  oil  of  amber  and  succinic  acid. 

Asphalt,  or  Asphaltum,  like  amber,  is  a  fossi-1  resin. 
It  is  one  of  the  series  of  petroleum  products,  and  forms  extensive  deposits  iu 
some  parts  of  the  world,  as  in  the  Island  of  Trinidad  and  Utah,      Used   in  tae 
iure  of  varnishes. 


The  Gum-Resins  and  Balsams. 

THE    GUM-RESINS. 

The  Gum-Resins  include  those  milky  exudations  of  plants  which 
contain  a  Gum  soluble  in  water  and  a  Resin  insoluble  in  water  but  sol- 
uble in  alcohol.  They  also  often,  but  not  always,  contain  volatile 
oils.  They  may,  therefore,  be  conveniently  divided  into  two  groups: 

(1)  Those  which  contain  volatile  oil: 

Ammoniac,  Asafcetida  and  Myrrh  are  official.  Galbanum,  Bdellium, 
Olibanum,  Opoponax  and  Sagapenum  are  unofficial. 

(2)  Those  which  do  not  contain  volatile  oil  are: 

Gamboge,  Scammony  and  Elastica,  official;   Euphorbium,  unofficial. 

Ammoniac. — Ammoniacum  U.  S. — Spontaneous  exudation  product 
from  stem  of  Dorema  Ammoniacum,  Don;  Xat.  Orel.  Umbellifernc. 

Distinct  or  agglutinated  tears,  light  yellowish-brown  externally,  milk-white 
toternally,  softens  by  the  heat  of  the  hand;  has  a  bitter  and  disagreeable  acrid 
<aste,  and  with  water  forms  a  milk-white  emulsion. 

A  form  which  comes  in  cakes  and  consists  of  tears  imbedded  in  a  brown 
oiass;  is  too  impure  for  medicinal  use. 

Composition. — Gum  18  to  28  per  cent,  resin  about  70  per  cent,  volatile  oil  from 
YZ  to  4  per  cent. 

Uses. — Expectorant  and  stimulant. 

Off.  Prep. — Kmpl.  Ammoniac  c.  Hydrarg. ,  Emulsum   Ammoniaci. 

Opoponax  gum-resin.  Product  of  another  umbelliferous  plant,  a  native  of 
Southern  Europe,  the  Opoponax  Chironium  is  obtained  by  making  incisions  in 
root  or  lower  part  of  stem. 

Irregular  masses,  angular  or  rounded,  friable,  reddish  or  yellowish  brown, 
odor  disagreeable,  taste  balsamic,  bitter.  Similar  in  properties  and  uses  to 
ammoniac. 

Ascfii'tida. — Asafcetida,  U.  S. — Exudation  product  from  two  dif- 
ferent species  of  Ferula  fcetida,  Regel;  a  native  of  Afghanistan  and 
Turkestan.  Obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  root. 

It  occurs  in  the  form  of  tears  nearly  distinct,  or  more  or  less  agglu- 
tinated in  masses,  more  commonly,  however,  as 

Amygdaloid  asaf<etida.  irregular  pieces  made  up  of  tears  imbedded 
in  a  sticky  yellowish  or  brownish  gray  mass,  more  or  less  impure  from 
vegetable  fragments  and  earthy  matters.  \\  hen  the  mass  is  freshly 
broken  the  tears  are  white,  but  on  exposure  changing  to  pink  and  then 
to  brown. 


258  GUM   RESINS. 

Liquid  asafcetida  is  a  sticky  semifluid,  more  or  less  impure  mass,  at  first  light- 
colored  but  gradually  turning  brown  on  exposure. 

Stony  asafoetida  is  a  very  impure  variety,  consisting  of  a  little  of  the  gum- 
resin  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  calcium  sulphate  and  other  impurities. 

Good  asafoetida  should  contain  60  per  cent  of  matter  that  is  soluble  in  alco- 
hol; it  has  a  strong  alliaceous  odor  and  bitter,  acrid  taste;  forms  a  milky  emul- 
sion with  water,  and  when  moistened  with  alcohol  and  afterward  with  chlor- 
hydric  acid  a  greenish  color  is  produced. 

Composition. — Gum  20  to  30  per  cent,  resin  50  to  70  per  cent,  3  to  9  per  cent 
volatile  oil  and  various  impurities. 

Uses. — Stimulant,  antispasmodic,  expectorant,  laxative. 
Off.  Prep. — Emulsum  Asafoetidae,   Pil.  Aloes  et  Asafoetidse;    Pil. 
Asafoetida;  Tinctura  Asafoetidae. 

Galbanum. — Galbanum. — Spontaneous  exudation  from  stem  of 
Ferula  galbaniflua  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus  of  Umbellifer- 
ous plants.  There  are  two  kinds:  in  tears  and  lump  galbanum. 

The  tears  are  small,  from  the  size  of  a  pin-head  to  that  of  a  pea  or  larger, 
mostly  agglutinated  into  a  hard  mass.  Yellowish-brown  or  greenish-brown  out- 
side, whitish  or  yellowish  inside,  peculiar  balsamic  odor,  acrid  bitterish  taste. 
Treated  with  alcohol  and  then  with  chlorhydric  acid,  it  turns  purplish. 

Lump  galbanum  sometimes  incloses  tears,  is  sometimes  soft,  has  a  somewhat 
different  color  and  does  not  change  color  by  alcohol  and  chlorhydric  acid. 
Probably  derived  from  a  different  species  of  plant. 

Composition. — Gum  15  to  20  per  cent,  resin  60  to  66  per  cent,  volatile  oil  6  to 
g  per  cent. 

Uses. — Antispasmodic,  stimulant,  expectorant. 

Uses. — Emplastrum  Asafcetidae,  Emplastrum  Galbani,  Pilulae  Galbani  com- 
positae,  formerly  official  U.  S.  Ph.  '80. 

Myrrh. — Myrrha,  U.  S. — Spontaneous  exudation  from  bark  of 
Comrniphora  Myrrha,  Engler;  Nat.  Ord.  Burseraceae,  a  tree  inhabit- 
ing Arabia  and  Northeastern  Africa. 

Dusty,  reddish  or  yellowish-brown  masses  of  irregular  tears,  odor  aromatic, 
taste  bitter,  acrid.  It  yields  a  brownish-yellow  emulsion  with  water,  its  alco- 
holic solution  acquires  a  purple  coloration  with  nitric  acid. 

Composition. — Gum  40  to  60  per  cent,  resin  25  to  40  per  cent,  volatile  oil,  bit- 
ter principle  and  ash. 

Uses. — Given  internally  and  applied  externally.  Stimulant,  expectorant, 
emmenagogue. 

Off.  Prep. — Mistura  Ferri  composita;  Pilulae  Aloes  et  Myrrhx; 
Tinctura  Aloes  et  Myrrhs:  Tinctura  Myrrhae. 

Bdellium. — Similar  to  myrrh.  Product  of  Balsamodendron  Mukul,  a  native 
of  East  India  and  West  Africa. 

It  is  best  distinguished  from  myrrh  by  testing  the  tincture  with  nitric  acid. 
Myrrh  acquires  a  purple  hue  while  bdellium  does  not.  Used  mostly  in  plasters. 

Olibanum  or  Frankincense. — Exudes  from  incisions  made   in  bark 


GUM   RESINS.  259 

of  Boswellia  Carterii  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus,  Nat.  Ord. 
Burseracene.  The  trees  are  natives  of  Arabia  and  Eastern  Africa. 

Light  red  or  yellowish,  translucent,  externally  dusty  tears  of  variable  size 
and  shape.  They  soften  when  held  in  the  mouth,  have  a  bitterish  and  bal- 
samic taste  and  a  balsamic  odor.  Lump  olibanum  is  less  pure,  being  gathered 
from  the  ground. 

Composition. — Gum  about  30  per  cent,  resin  Co  to  70  per  cent,  volatile  oil  and 
a  bitter  principle. 

i'sts. — Chiefly  for  plasters  and  fumigations,  sometimes  internally.  Expec- 
torant, tonic,  stimulant. 

GUM-RESINS    CONTAINING    NO    VOLATILE    OIL. 

Gamboge. — Cambogia,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  making  incisions  into 
the  bark  of  Garcinia  Hanburii,  Nat.  Ord.  Guttiferos,  a  small  tree 
native  to  Cochin  China,  Cambodia  and  Siam. 

In  sticks  or  cakes,  the  former  preferred  on  account  of  its  being  less  liable  to 
adulteration.  Sticks  cylindrical,  sometimes  hollow;  surface  striated  from  the 
impressions  of  the  bamboo,  in  the  hollow  stems  of  which  the  gum  resin  is  col- 
lected; fracture  smooth,  conchoidal,  orange  red  in  color,  inodorous,  taste  un- 
pleasantly acrid,  dust  sternutatory.  A  good  quality  yields  a  bright  yellow  pow- 
der and  also  a  bright  yellow  emulsion  when  triturated  with  water. 

Composition.— Gum  16  to  20  per  cent  and  resin  about  80  per  cent,  besides 
seme  water  and  impurities. 

L'sis. — In  combination  with  other  medicine  as  a  hydragogue  cathartic. 

Off.  Prep.  —  Pilulae  Cathartics  composite. 

Scammonv. — Scammonium,  U.  S. — Dried  milk-juice  of  Convolvu- 
lus Scammonia,  Nat.  Ord.  Convolvulaceac,  a  native  of  Western  Asia. 
Obtained  by  cutting  off  the  top  of  root  and  scraping  away  the  exuding 
milk-juice. 

Dark  greenish  or  blackish  irregular  masses,  or  regular  cakes,  breaking  with 
an  angular  fracture,  a  resinous  lustre;  powdered  it  possesses  a  greenish  cast 
and  yields  with  water  a  dark  greenish  emulsion;  odor  somewhat  like  cheese, 
taste  acrid, 

Composition. — Gum  5  to  15  per  cent,  resin  So  to  go  per  cent,  and  various  im- 
purities. Liable  to  be  adulterated  with  starch,  chalk  and  with  various  resins. 

Uses. — As  hydragogue  cathartic. 

Off.  Prep.  —  Resina  Scammonii. 

Enphorbium. — Exudation  from  incisions  in  the  stem  of  Euphorbia 
resinifera,  a  cactus-like  shrub,  native  to  the  mountains  of  Morocco. 

Dull  brownish  yellow,  somewhat  translucent,  globular,  conical  or  irregular 
masses,  dust  violently  sternutatory,  taste  very  acrid.  Not  completely  soluble 
in  any  simple  solvent;  does  not  completely  emulsify  in  water. 

Composition. — Gum  18  per  cent,  euphorbion  and  another  resin,  malates,  and 
various  impurities. 

Uses. — Externally  as  rubefacient,  vesicant  and  suppurant,  If  taken  inter- 
nally it  acts  as  a  violent  and  dangerous  purgative  and  emetic. 


2<3o  BALSAMS. 

India  Rubber. — Elastica,  U.  S. — Caoutchouc. — The  prepared  milk- 
juice  of  various  species  of  Hevea.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Euphorbiacese;  known 
in  commerce  as  Para  Rubber. 

It  is  obtained  from  incisions  through  the  bark  and  dried,  on  moulds  so  as  to 
furnish  hollow  balls,  or  in  solid  roundish  pieces. 

Brown  or  brownish-black,  internally  lighter  colored,  insoluble  in  water, 
dilute  acids,  solutions  of  alkalies  or  alcohol;  soluble  in  chloroform,  carbon  di- 
sulphide,  oil  of  turpentine,  benzin  and  benzol.  It  is  lighter  than  water  and 
melts  at  i25~C. 

I'sfs. — Its  solution  in  Chloroform  as  a  cement  and  sometimes  as  a  surgical 
dressing.  Mixed  with  Sulphur  and  heated  it  is  rendered  insoluble  and  unaf- 
fected by  heat,  zulcanizcd;  a  useful  material  for  the  construction  of  surgical  ap- 
pliances, etc. 

THE     BALSAMS. 

The  term  balsam  is  used  very  frequently  in  a  loose,  general  sense  to 
designate  certain  resins,  oleoresins  and  mixtures  of  various  kinds,  dif- 
fering widely  in  composition  and  properties,  but  supposed  to  possess 
healing  virtues. 

The  term  is  here  restricted  to  those  liquid,  semi-liquid  or  solid  veg- 
etable products  that  contain,  in  addition  to  a  resin  or  oleoresin>  ben- 
zoic  or  cinnamic  acids,  or  both. 

The  official  Balsams  included  under  this  definition  are:  Benzoin, 
Peru,  Tolu  and  Sty  rax. 

Benzoin. — Benzoinum,  U.  S. — A  solid  balsam  from  Styrax  Ben- 
zoin, a  tree  native  to  Sumatra,  Java  and  Siam.  Exudes  from  incis- 
ions made  through  bark  of  tree. 

Several  varieties,  the  better  consisting  of  opaque,  milk-white  tears,  aggluti- 
nated in  masses,  the  mass  being  yellowish  or  grayish-brown,  but  inferior  kinds 
contain  few  tears  and  a  large  proportion  of  bark  and  chips  of  wood.  It  is 
almost  wholly  soluble  in  5  parts  of  warm  alcohol  and  in  solutions  of  the  fixed 
alkalies. 

Sumatra  Benzoin,  in  brown-gray  masses,  containing  a  variable  proportion  of 
milky-colored  tears. 

Siam  Benzoin,  in  red-brown  translucent  masses  with  few  or  many  tears  and 
an  agreeable  vanilla-like  odor. 

Fencing  Benzoin,  sometimes  very  similar  to  the  Sumatra  variety,  but  at  other 
times  more  resembling  storax  in  appearance  and  odor. 

Composition. — Benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids,  various  resins,  and,  in  some  varie- 
ties, vanillin.  Oinnamir  acid  is  sometimes  absent. 

Uses. — Stimulant,  expectorant.  Also  in  preparation  of  pastiles,  dentjfr;ces 
and  perfumes. 

Off.  Prep. — Adeps  Benzoinatus,  Tinctura  Benzoini,  Tincture  Ben- 
zoini  composita. 


BALSAMS.  261 

Peru  Balsam.  —  Balsamum  Peruvianum,  U.  S. — Derived  from 
Toluifera  Pereira,  Baillon,  a  tree  growing  in  West  Brazil,  North- 
western coast  of  South  America  and  Central  America. 

Molasses-colored,  semi-liquid,  red-brown,  and  transparent  when  seen  in  thin 
layers;  sp.  gr.  1.135  to  1.150;  odor  agreeable,  aromatic,  somewhat  smoky;  taste, 
warm,  bitterish,  afterward  acrid.  Miscible  in  all  proportions  with  absolute, 
alcohol,  chloroform  or  glacial  acetic  acid;  only  partially  soluble  in  ether  ex. 
benzin;  completely  soluble  in  5  parts  of  alcohol. 

Composition. — Benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids,  benzylic  benzoate  andcinnamate 
benzylic  alcohol  and  resin. 

Adulterations. — Alcohol,  fixed  oils,  copaiba,  turpentine,  rosin,  etc.  [For  testa 
of  purity  see  U.  S.  Ph.] 

Uses. — Externally  as  ointment;  internally,  stimulant  and  expectorant;  also  as 
a  basis  for  perfumes. 

Tolu  Balsam. — Balsamum  Tolutanum,  U.  S. — Product  of  a  Legu- 
minous tree,  Toluifera  Balsamum,  Linne.  A  native  of  Central 
America,  Venezuela,  and  New  Granada. 

It  is  obtained  by  scarifying  the  bark  of  the  trees  and  collecting  the 
exudation  in  "calabashes." 

Liquid  or  semi-liquid  when  fresh,  hardening  with  age,  but  still 
readily  softening  in  the  mouth,  yellowish  or  reddish-brown  in  color, 
in  thin  layers  transparent;  when  examined  microscopically,  showing 
crystals  of  cinnamic  acid;  odor  agreeably  aromatic,  somewhat  resemb- 
ling vanilla;  taste  aromatic;  completely  soluble  in  alcohol  and  chloro- 
form, solutions  of  fixed  alkalies  and  almost  so  in  ether,  but  insoluble 
in  carbon  disulphide  and  petroleum  benzin. 

Composition. — Benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids,  two  resins  differing  in  their  solu- 
bility in  alcohol,  toluene,  and  benzylic  benzoate  and  cinnamate. 

Adulterations.- — Turpentines,  which  may  be  detected  by  means  of  sulphurir 
acid,  which  turns  pure  tolu  balsam  a  cherry  red,  but  bleaches  that  which  con- 
tains turpentine. 

L'scs. — Expectorant,  stimulant.  Used  by  perfumers,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  pastiles. 

Off.  Prep. — Syrupus  Tolutanus;  Tinctura  Benzoini  comp. ;  Tine- 
tura  Tolutana. 

Storax  Balsam. — Styrax,  LT.  S. — Product  of  the  Liquidamber 
Orientalis.  Nat.  Ord.,  Hamamelaceae,  inhabiting  the  Southwestern 
part  of  Asia  Mi  nor.  Extracted  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  tree  by 
boiling  in  water. 

Consistency  of  thick  syrup;  opaque  from  containing  finely  divided  particles  of 
water,  separated  by  standing  into  two  layers,  one  heavier  and  darker  colored, 
the  other  lighter  and  containing  most  of  the  water;  odor  strong,  agreeable, 
balsamic.  Soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  carbon  disulphide,  insoluble  in  cold 


262  BALSAM   DERIVATIVES. 

Petroleum  benzin,  but  hot  benzin  dissolves  out  the  styracin  and  cinnamic  acid 
•which  are  deposited  in  crystals  on  cooling. 

Composition. — Benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids,  styracin,  storesin,  resins,  etc. 

Uses. — Stimulant,  diuretic,  or  expectorant ;  also  in  Tinctura  Benzoini  Com- 
posita. 

Liqiiidamber  styraciflua,  the  "Sweet  Gum  Tree,"  of  the  Southern  United 
States,  exudes  a  similar  balsam.  It  is  usually  solid. 

Dragon ' s  Blood. — Resina  Draconis. — Exudation  from  ripening  fruit 
of  Daemonorops  Draco,  a  species  of  Palm,  native  to  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago. 

Solid,  dark,  red-brown,  in  tears,  rounded  masses,  sticks,  or  irregular  cakes, 
transparent  in  thin  pieces,  aromatic,  and  with  a  benzoin-like  odor  when  heated; 
readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  benzol  and  turpentine. 

Composition. — Resins,  benzoic  or  cinnamic  acid.  Sometimes  the  one  and 
sometimes  the  other  acid  is  present,  and  sometimes  both  are  wanting. 

L  ~ses. — Astringent,  stimulant.  Employed  for  coloring  varnishes  and  tinc- 
tures, and  in  plasters. 

BALSAM    ACIDS. 

Benzoic  Acid. — HC7H5O2. — Acidum  Benzoicum,  U.  S. — A  mono- 
basic acid  obtained  by  sublimation  from  Benzoin,  or  produced  arti- 
ficially from  Toluol. 

Only  from  7  to  8^  of  the  acid  is  obtained  by  sublimation,  nearly  an  equal 
amount  left  in  the  benzoin  being  produced  by  boiling  the  residue  with  milk  of 
lime,  filtering  and  supersaturating  the  hot  filtered  liquid  with  Hydrochloric 
Acid.  The  crystals  thrown  out  are  purified  by  dissolving  them  in  hot  alcohol 
and  filtration  through  animal  charcoal,  or  by  sublimation. 

Soluble  in  500  parts  of  water  at  15  C.,  in  15  parts  of  boiling  water,  and  in  2 
parts  of  alcohol;  completely  volatilized  without  change  when  heated  on  plat- 
inum foil;  heated  with  3  parts  of  quicklime  in  a  test  tube,  it  evolves  the  odor  of 
benzol. 

L'sc's. — In  medicine  chiefly  in  genito-urinary  diseases;  dose  from  3  to  6  dcg., 
also  as  an  antiseptic  in  surgery. 

Cinnamic  Acid. — HC9H7Oo. — An  acid  quite  similar  to  Benzoic  Acid  is  derived 
ciiefly  from  Cinnamon  Oil,  which  consists  of  cinnamic  aldehyde. 


Resinous  Drugs,  Group  IV. 

This  group  includes  those  vegetable  drugs  whose  virtues  are  chiefly 
or  wholly  due  to  the  presence  of  an  acrid  or  bitter  resin,  or  to  extrac- 
tive matter,  either  associated  or  not  with  a  volatile  or  acrid  fixed  oil. 

Some  few  contain  glucosides,  alkaloids,  or  other  principles,  but 
these  are  not  regarded  as  possessing  any  considerable  medicinal  impor- 
tance. 

The  Resinous  drugs  require  alcoholic  menstrua  for  extraction  and 
like  the  aromatic  drugs  their  preparations  precipitate  with  water.  The 
process  for  preparing  the  Resin  of  Podophyllum,  by  pouring  a  con- 
centrated alcoholic  Tincture  of  the  drug  into  Water,  is  one  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  their  behavior  when  mixed  with  water  or  aqueous 
liquids.  This  pharmaceutical  incompatibility  may  be  modified  or 
prevented  by  the  intervention  of  Sugar  or  Mucilage,  which  serves  to 
suspend  the  resinous  matter  in  liquid  mixtures. 

Absinthium. — Absinthium,  U.  S. — Wormwood,  leaves  and  tops  of 
Artemisia  absinthium,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae.  Constituents: 
Vol.  oil,  one  per  cent;  absinthin,  tannin,  resin,  etc.  Preparation: 
Vinum  aromaticum,  U.  S.  Ph.  '80. 

Uses. — Tinctura  Absinthii  and  Abstractum  Absinthii  Ph.  Ger.,  prepared 
with  diluted  alcohol;  also  largely  used  in  various  "Bitters." 

Arnica  Flowers  and  Root. — Arnicae  Flores  and  Arnicae  Radix, 
U.  S. — Flowers  and  Root  of  Arnica  montana,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord., 
Compositae.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil  (root  1  per  cent) ,  inulin,  both 
tasteless  and  acrid  resins,  arnicin,  etc.  Off.  Prep. :  Tmctura  Arnicae 
Florum;  Extractum  Arnicae  Radicis;  Extractum  Arnicae  Radicis  Fluid- 
urn;  Tinctura  Arnicae  Radicis. 

Asclepias. — Asclepias,  U.  S. — Pleurisy  Root. — Root  of  Asclepias 
taberosa,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Asclepiadeae.  Constituents:  Bitter 
principle,  resins,  tannin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Asclepiadis 
Fluidum. 

Uses. — As  Infusion  in  rheumatic  affections,  and,  as  its  name  implies,  in 
pleurisy. 

Aspidium. — Aspidium,  U.  S. — Rhizome  of  Dryopteris  filix  mas, 
and  of  Dryopteris  marginalis,  Gray.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Filices.  Constitu- 
ents: Fixed  oil,  six  per  cent;  filicic  acid,  filitannic  acid,  etc.  Off. 
Prep.:  Oleoresina  Aspidii. 

267 


268  RESINOUS 

Uses. — For  the  removal  of  tapeworm,  ten  to  twenty  minims  of  the  Oleoresin, 
administered  upon  a  fasting  stomach,  and  followed  with  a  purgative. 

Buchu. — (See  Group  3.) 

Cusso. — Cusso,  U.  S. — Brayera,  'HO. — Kousso.  Female  inflores- 
cence of  Hagenica  Abyssinica,  Gmelin.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rosaceae.  Con- 
stituents: Bitter  acrid  kousinresin  about  six  per  cent,  tannin  and 
tasteless  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Cusso  Fluidum. 

i'scs. — For  the  removal  of  tapeworm,  either  alone  or  combined  with  other 
agents  in  the  form  of  Infusion  which  should  not  be  strained. 

Indian  Cannabis. — Cannabis  Indica,  U.  S. — Flowering  tops  of  a 
female  plant  of  an  East  Indian  variety  of  Cannabis  saliva,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Urticaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  several  resins  and 
alkaloids.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Cannabis  Indicse;  Extractum  Can- 
nabis Indicae  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Cannabis  Indicae. 

Uses. — Cannabin  Tannate  is  a  compound  of  the  active  principle  with  tannic 
acid,  and  is  said  to  represent  the  medicinal  virtues  of  "Indian  Hemp." 

Caseara  Sagrada. — Rhamnus  Purshiana,  U.  S.  • —  The  bark  of 
Rhamnus  Purshiana,  De  Candolle.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Rhamnaceae.  Con- 
stituents: Several  resins.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Rhamni  Purshianae 
Fluidum. 

Uses. — As  a  gentle  laxative  especially  in  habitual  constipation.  Also  used  in 
the  form  of  Infusion  and  Extract  representing  five  times  the  drug.  The  so- 
called  tasteless  preparations  made  by  treating  the  drug  with  magnesia  previous 
to  extraction  are  not  reliable. 

Caulophyllutn. — Caulophyllum,  U.  S. — Blue  Cohosh. — Rhizome 
and  rootlets  of  Caulophyllum  thalictroides,  Michx.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ber- 
berideae.  Constituents:  Resins,  saponin. 

Uses. — Caulophyllin,  a  so-called  resinoid,  is  prepared  by  precipitating  an 
alcoholic  tincture  in  water,  washing,  drying  and  powdering  the  precipitated 
resin.  Owing  to  the  saponin  Caulophyllum  contains,  due  care  should  be  ob- 
served in  the  process  of  powdering,  as  it  is  a  violent  sternutatory. 

Chamomilc. — Anthemis,  U.  S. — Flower  heads  of  Anthemis  nobilis, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil,  bitter  prin- 
ciple, etc. 

l.'ses. — An  ingredient  in  Bitters  for  domestic  use;  also  as  Infusion. 

Cimicifuga. — Cimicifuga,  U.  S.  —  Black  Snakeroot.  Rhizome  and 
rootlets  of  Cimicifuga  racemosa,  Elliott.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ranunculaceac. 
Constituents:  Resin,  acrid  principle,  and  a  peculiar  acid.  Off.  Prep.: 
Extractum  Cimicifugse;  Extractum  Cimicifugae  Fluidum;  Tinctura 
CimicifugK. 

U.tts. — Cimicifugin,  or  macrotyn,  a  resinoid  prepared  by  precipitating  the 
alcoholic  tincture  in  water,  washing,  drying  and  powdering  the  precipitated 


DRUGS.  269 

resin;  also  as  Decoction  and  Infusion,  and  solid  Extract,  which  represents  ten 
times  the  strength  of  the  crude  drug. 

Cotton  Root  Bark. — Gossypii  Radicis  Cortex,  U.  S. — Bark  of  root 
of  Gossypium  herbaceum,  Linne,  and  other  species  of  Gossypium. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Malvaceae.  Constituents:  Resins,  coloring  matter,  fixed 
oil,  and  a  peculiar  principle  similar  to  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Gossypii  Radicis  Corticis  Fluidum. 

f'ses. — Sometimes  in  Decoction  and  Extract.  Liquid  preparations  of  cotton- 
root  bark  are  liable  to  gelatinize,  which  may  be  prevented  by  using  strong 
alcohol  as  a  menstruum. 

Cubeb.  —  (See  Group  3.) 

Cypripedium. — Cypripedium,  U.  S. — Ladies'  Slipper. — Rhizome 
and  rootlets  of  Cypripedium  pubescens,  Willd.,  and  C.  parviflorum, 
Salisbury.  Nat.  Ord.,  Orchideae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  resins, 
etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Cypripedii  Fluidum. 

Eucalyptus. — (See  Group  3.) 

Frangnla. — Frangula,  U.  S. — Buckthorn. — Bark  of  Rhamnus  fran- 
gula,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rhamnaceoe.  (Should  be  collected  one 
year,  at  least,  before  using.)  Constituents:  Resin,  bitter  principle, 
emodin  and  frangulin.  -Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Frangulae  Fluidum. 

Garlic. — Allium,  U.  S. — Bulb  of  Allium  sativum,  Linne.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Liliaceoe.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one-fourth  per  ceat;  muci- 
lage thirty-five  per  cent,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Syrupus  Allii. 

Ginger. — (See  Group  3.) 

Grindelia. — Grindelia,  U.  S. — Leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Grin- 
delia  robusta,  Nuttall,  (and  G.  squarrosa,  Dunal) .  Nat.  Ord..  Com- 
positge.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  resin,  and  bitter  extractive.  Off. 
Prep.:  Extractum  Grindelia;  Fluidum. 

Guaiacum  Wood. — Guaiaci  Lignum,  U.  S. — Lignum  vitae.  Heart- 
wood  of  Guaiacum  officinale  and  G.  sanctum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.; 
Zygophyllese.  Constituents:  Resin  and  extractive  matter. 

Uses. — In  Decoction;  as  a  constituent  of  Syrup  Sarsaparilla  comp.,  and  in 
Species  Lignorum  Ph.  Ger. 

Hamamelis. —  Hamamelis,  U.  S. — Witch  Hazel  — Leaves  of  Hama- 
melis  Virginiana,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.:  Hamamelaceae.  (Leaves  should 
be  collected  in  autumn  while  still  green.)  Constituents:  Tannin  and 
bitter  extractive.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Hamamelidis  Fluidum. 

Uses. — In  conjunction  with  the  bark  for  the  preparation  of  Distilled  Extract 
of  Witch  Hazel  by  distillation  with  water,  Aqua  Hamamelidis.,  Nat.  Form 

Inula. — Inula,    U.    S. — Elecampane.—  Root   of    Inula     Helenium, 


tjo  RESINOUS 

Unne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Composite.     Constituents:     Intilin,  helenin,  bit- 
ter extractive,  and  acrid  resin. 

Iris. — Iris,  U.  S. — Blue  Flag. — Rhizome  and  rootlets  of  Iris  versi- 
color,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Irideae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  acrid 
resin.  Off.  Prep.,  Extractum  Iridis;  Extractum  Iridis  Fluidum. 

Uses. — Iridin,  a  resinoid,  prepared  by  precipitating  the  alcoholic  tincture  in 
acidulated  water,  washing,  drying,  and  powdering  the  precipitated  resin  Iris 
is  also  a  constituent  of  Compound  Syrup  of  Stillingia. 

Jalap. — Jalapa,  U.  S. — Tuberous  root  of  Ipomcea  Jalapa,  Nuttall. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Convolvulacese.  Constituents:  Resins  about  fifteen  per 
cent.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Jalapae;  Pulvis  Jalapae  CompositusjResina 
Jalapae. 

Uses. — Resin  of  Jalap  or  "Jalapin"  (prepared  in  the  same  way  as  the  fore- 
going) is  soluble  in  ether  to  the  extent  of  ten  per  cent.  The  insoluble  por- 
tion is  termed  convolvulin,  and  represents  the  medicinal  virtue  of  Jalap.  The 
U.  S.  Ph.  directs  that  Jalap  should  yield  not  less  than  twelve  per  cent  of  resin. 
The  principal  use  of  Jalap  is  in  the  form  of  Extract  in  Comp.  Cathartic  Pills. 

Kamala. — Kamala,  U.  S. — Hairs  and  glands  from  capsules  of  Mal- 
lotus  Phillipinensis,  Mueller  Arg.  or  Rottlera  tinctoria,  Roxburgh. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Euphorbiaceae.  Constituents:  Resins  eighty  per  cent,  rot- 
tlerin. 

Uses. — As  a  remedy  for  Taenia  and  other  intestinal  worms,  either  alone  or 
associated  with  other  agents. 

Lappa. — Lappa,  U.  S. — Burdock. — Root  of  Arctium  Lappa,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae.  Constituents:  Inulin,  bitter  extractive, 
mucilage,  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Lappse  Fluidum. 

Uses. — A  tincture  of  Burdock  fruit,  twenty  per  cent,  with  seventy  per  cent 
alcohol,  as  an  internal  remedy  in  certain  skin  diseases. 

Lupulin. — Lupulinum,  U.  S. — Glandular  powder  obtained  from 
the  strobiles  of  Humulus  lupulus,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Urticaceae.  Con- 
stituents: Volatile  oil  three  per  cent,  resin,  lupamaric  acid,  etc.  Off. 
Prep.:  Extractum  Lupulini  Fluidum;  Oleoresina  Lupulini. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  pills;  made  into  a  mass  by  the  addition  of  a  little  ether. 

Marrubium. —  (See  Group  3.) 

Matico. — Matico,  U.  S. — Leaves  of  Piper  Angustifolium,  R.  &  P. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Piperaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one  and  a  Ltlf  per 
cent,  pungent  resin,  artanthic  acid,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum 
Matico  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Matico  and  an  unofficial  Infusion. 

Alatricaria. — Matricaria,  U.  S. — German  Chamomile.  —  Flower 
heads  of  Matricaria  Chamomilla,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae. 


DRUGS  271 

» 

Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one- fourth  per  cent,  anthemic  acid,  anthe- 
midin,  bitter  extractive. 

Uses. — As  a  substitute  for  English  or  Roman  Chamomile,  to  which,  how- 
ever, it  is  said  to  be  inferior. 

Mezereum. — Mezereum,  U.  S. — Bark  of  Daphne  Mezereum,  Linne, 
and  other  species  of  the  same  genus.  Nat.  Ord.,  Thymelaeaceae.  Con- 
stituents: Soft  acrid  resin,  daphnin  and  volatile  principle.  Off.  Prep.: 
Decoctum  Sarsaparillae  compositum;  Extractum  Sarsaparillae  composi- 
tum  fluidum;  Extractum  Mezerei  Fluidum. 

,     Mezereum,  when  being  powdered,  produces  a  very  irritating  dust;  it  may  be 
prevented  by  sprinkling  a  little  alcohol  upon  the  bark. 

Phytolacca  Berry. — Phytolaccae  Fructus,  U.  S. —  Poke  Berry. — Fruit 
of  Phytolacca  decandra,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Phytolaccaceae.  Constit- 
uents: Acrid  principle,  sugar,  gum,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Phyto- 
laccse  Fluidum. 

Phytolacca  Root.—  Phytolaccae  Radix,  U.  S.— Poke  Root.  Root  of 
Phytolacca  decandra,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Phytolaccaceati.  Constitu- 
ents: Acrid  principle,  resin,  tannin,  etc. 

Neither  is  much  employed  except  by  physicians  of  the  Eclectic  School  of 
Medicine. 

Podophyllum. — Podophyllum,  U.  S. — May  Apple.  Rhizome  and 
rootlets  of  Podophyllum  peltatum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Berberideae. 
Constituents:  Resins  five  per  cent.  Off.  Prep. :  Extractum  Podophylli; 
Extractum  Podophylli  Fluidum;  Resina  Podophylli. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  the  form  of  Resin,  or  Podophyllin,  in  pills,  either  alone  or 
combined  with  other  cathartics  or  agents  to  modify  its  action,  i.  <•.,  extract  hyo- 
scyamus. 

Pnlsatilla. — Pulsatilla,  U.  S. — Herb  of  Anemone  Pulsatilla,  and  A. 
pratensis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ranunculacese.  (Should  be  collected 
soon  after  flowering,  carefully  dried,  and  not  kept  more  than  one  year.) 
Constituent:  Volatile  acrid  principle.  Preparations:  Unofficial  Fluid 
Extract  and  Tincture. 

Uses. — The  Homeopathic  Tincture  prepared  i  part  in  10  of  alcohol. 

Pumpkin  Seed. — Pepo,  U.  S. — Seeds  of  Cucurbita  Pepo,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Cucurbitaceae.  Constituents:  Fixed  oil  fourty-four  per  cent, 
acrid  resin. 

Uses. — Emulsion  as  a  taenifuge;  two  to  four  ounces  are  beaten  with  some 
sugar  and  triturated  with  water  or  milk;  it  should  not  be  strained,  as,  according 
to  some  authorities,  its  efficiency  in  expelling  the  worms  is  due  to  the  perisperni 
of  the  seed,  which  would  be  rejected  by  straining. 

Pyre  thrum. — Pyrethrum,  U.  S.  —  Pellitory.  Root  of  Anacyclus 
Pyrethrum,  De  Candolle.  Nat.  Ord.,  Composite.  Constituents: 


ayt  RESINOUS 

Acrid  resin,  bitter  principle,  inulin,  fixed  oil.     Off.   Prep.:  Tinctura 
Pyrethri. 

Uses. — As  an  ingredient  in  Toothache  Pills,  Ph.  Ger.  The  ground  flowers  of 
Pyrethrum  roseum,  known  as  "Persian  Insect  Powder,"  for  the  destruction  of 
insects. 

Sambucus. — (See  Group  3.) 

Savinc. — Sabina,  U.  S. — Leafy  tops  of  Juniperus  Sabina,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Coniferse.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  two  per  cent,  resin, 
tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Sabinae  Fluidum. 

Scutellaria.  —  (See  Group  10.) 

Serpentaria. — Serpentaria,  U.  S. — Virginia  Snake  root.  Rhizome 
and  rootlets  of  Aristolochia  Serpentaria,  Linne,  and  A.  reticulata, 
Nuttall.  Nat.  Ord.,  Aristolochiaceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil  one- 
half  per  cent,  bitter  principle,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Serpen- 
tariae  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Cinchonas  compositae;  Tinctura  Serpentariae. 

Stillingia. — Stillingia,  U.  S. — Queen's  Root.  Root  of  Stillingia 
sylvatica,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Euphorbiaceae.  Constituents:  Pungent 
acrid  resin,  fixed  oil,  tannin,  starch.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Stil- 
lingiae  Fluidum. 

Uses. — In  Compound  Syrup  Stillingia.  Am.  Disp.  (Nat.  Form.)  The  medi- 
cinal value  of  Stillingia  is  due  chiefly  to  the  oil;  since  this  is  insoluble  in  water 
the  syrup  is  more  or  less  cloudy.  The  Compound  Fluid  Extract  should  not  yield 
a  clear  mixture  with  water,  as  in  that  case  it  must  be  nearly  inert. 

Xanthoxylum. — Xanthoxylum,  U.  S. — Prickly  Ash.  Bark  of  Xan- 
thoxylum  Americanum,  Miller,  and  of  X.  Clava-Herculis,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Rutaceae.  Constituents:  Bitter  principle,  acrid  oil,  both 
acrid  and  tasteless  resin,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Xanthoxyli 
Fluidum. 

SPECIES — TEA    MIXTURES. 

Mixtures  of  various  drugs  coarsely  comminuted  by  slicing  or  bruis- 
ing in  an  iron  mortar,  mixed  often  with  aromatic  drugs  in  their  whole 
form,  are  called  Species. 

The  following  are  mixtures  of  drugs,  most  of  which  are  included  in  the  forego- 
ing groups: 

Breast  Tea. — Species  Pectorales:  Althaea,  8;  Glycyrrhiza,  Russian,  peeled,  3; 
Orris,  i;  Coltsfoot,  4;  Mullein  flowers,  2,  and  Anise  (star),  2  parts.  Contuse 
and  mix. 

Laxative  Tea. — Species  Laxantes:  Senna,  16;  Elder  flowers,  10;  Fennel,  5; 
Anise,  5,  and  Potassium  Bitartrate,  4  parts.  To  the  Senna  (cut)  add  the  potas- 
sium bitartrate,  then  the  other  ingredients,  and  mix  the  whole  thoroughly. 

Wood  Tea — Species    Lignorum,    "Blood-purifying  Tea."    Guaiac  wood,    5; 


DRUGS 


273 


Ononis  (Rest-harrow  root),  3;   Glycyrrhiza,     Russian,   peeled,   and  Sassafras 
each,  one  part;  mix. 

Fumigating  Powder. — A  mixture  of  Lavender    Rose    Rosemary,  Orris,  etc  , 
in  various  proportions,  for  incinerating  in  sick  chambers   etc. 


UNOFFICIAL    RKS1NOUS    DRUGS GROUP    FOUR. 


COM.  NAME. 

BOT.  NAME 

PART 
USED. 

CONSTITUENTS 
BESIDES  RESIN. 

Actaea. 

Actaea  spicata. 

Root. 

Acrid  principle. 

Aletris 

Aletris  farinosa. 

R'zome. 

Bitter  principle. 

Apocynum   (Dog's 

A.  androsaemifolium. 

R'zome  & 

Bitter  principle,  etc 

bane). 

Root. 

Arbor  Vitae. 

Thija  Occident. 

Tops. 

Vol.  oil,  tannin. 

Arum 

Arisaema  triphyllum 

Corm. 

Volatile  acrid  principle 

(Indian  Turnip) 

Azedarach. 

Melia  A. 

Root   b'k 

Bitter  resin. 

Bela. 

Aegle  Marmelos. 

Fruit. 

Bit.  prin.,  tan.,  vol  oil 

Canella 

(See  Group  2). 

Cannabis  Am 

C.  saliva. 

Fl.  h'b. 

Resins,  vol.  oil. 

Chelone 

Chelone  glabra. 

Herb. 

Bitter  principle. 

Collinsonia. 

C.  Canadensis. 

R'zome  & 

Bitter  principle. 

root. 

Coltsfoot. 

Tussijago  farfara. 

Herb. 

Bit.  prin.,  tan.,  muc'lg. 

Damiana. 

Turnera  microphylla. 

Leaves. 

Bit.  prin.,  vol.  oil,  resin 

Dioscorea. 

Dioscorea  villosa 

R'zome. 

Acrid  principle. 

Dracontium 

Symplocarpus  foetidus 

R'zome. 

Acrid  principle. 

Drosera  (Sun  dew) 

D.  rotundifolia. 

Herb. 

Acrid  resin,  etc. 

Euphorbia 

E.  corollata. 

Root. 

Acrid  resin,  etc. 

Feverfew. 

Pyrethr.  Parthenium. 

Herb. 

Bit.  prin.,  vol.  oil. 

Gnaphalium. 

G.  polycephalum. 

Herb. 

Bit.  prin..  vol.  oil. 

Helianthemum. 

H.  Canadense. 

Herb. 

Bit.  principle,  tannin. 

Heraclum. 

H.  lanatum. 

Root  1'ves 

Acrid  principle,  vol.  oil. 

fr'ts. 

Hypericum. 

H.  perforatum. 

Herb. 

Color,  tannin. 

Leonurus. 

L.  cardiaca. 

Herb. 

Bit.  principle,  vol.  oil. 

Liatris. 

L.  spicata  and  species. 

Tuber. 

Volatile  oil. 

Lycopus. 

L.Virginicus. 

Herb. 

Bit.  prin.,  vol.  oil,  tan 

Menyanthis. 

M.  trifoliata. 

Leaves. 

Acrid  prin.,  m'ny'thin 

Milkweed. 

Asclepias  cornuti. 

R'zome. 

Hit.     prin.,     asclepioii. 

tannin. 

Myrica. 

Myrica  cerifera. 

Bark. 

Myricinic  acid. 

Nymphasa. 

Nymphaea  odorata. 

R'zome 

Bit.  prin.,  muc'lg.,  tan 

Panax    (Ginseng). 

Panax  quinquefolia.              iRoot. 

Panaquilon. 

Pimpernel 

(See  Group  3). 

Ricinus 

Ricinus  communis. 

Seed. 

Acrid  prin.,  fixed  oil. 

Sabbatia. 

S.  angularis  and  spec. 

Herb. 

Bit.    prin.,  erythrocen- 

taurin. 

Senecio  (Life  root] 

Senecio  aureus. 

H'b&R't. 

Bit.    principle,    tannin. 

Silphium 

S.  laciniatum  and  spec. 

Root. 

Resins,  vol.  oil 

Trillium. 

T.  erectum  and  spec. 

R'zome. 

Acrid  principle,  etc 

Triosteum 

T.  perfoliatum,                      iR'zome  & 

Bitter  principle,  etc. 

Root. 

Turmeric. 

(See  Group  3) 

Viscum  (Mistl'toe)IViscum  album.                        Herb. 

Salts,  and  fixed  oil. 

Wintera.                   (See  Group  3  ) 

The  Fixed  Oils  and  Fats. 

The  Fatty  Oils  constitute  a  very  distinct  natural  group  of  ternary 
compounds,  and  are  found  widely  distributed  in  both  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms,  few  animals  or  plants  being  entirely  destitute  of 
them. 

In  the  higher  Animals  they  are  mainly  stored  beneath  the  skin  in 
the  connective  tissue,  in  the  abdominal  cavity  about  the  Kidneys,  etc. 
In  Plants  they  often  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  the  weight  of 
Seeds  and  Fruits,  but  they  are  found  not  infrequently  stored  in  smaller 
quantities  in  other  parts  of  the  plant.  In  both  kingdoms  they  serve 
mainly  as  reserve  stores  of  Food. 

They  are  either  liquid,  semi-liquid  or  solid  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures; greasy  to  the  feel  when  sufficiently  fluid,  they  are  lighter  than 
water,  and  do  not  mingle  with  it  in  any  proportion,  are,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, but  slightly  soluble  in  Alcohol,  while  they  arefree/y  soluble  in 
Ether,  Chloroform,  Carbon  Bisulphide,  Benzin  and  the  Volatile  Oik; 
they  are  not  volatilizable  without'  chemical  change  and  leave  a  greasy 
stain  upon  paper  when  heated,  but  at  a  temperature  varying  between 
260°  and  315°C.  they  boil,  giving  off  irritating  vapors,  and  most  of 
them,  when  treated  with  alkali,  form  soaps. 

The  fixed  oils  are  all  combustible,  burning  with  a  smoky  flame. 
Some  remain  unchanged  for  a  long  time  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
while  others,  especially  those  that  contain  mucilaginous  or  proteid  im- 
purities, undergo  change  and  become  rancid,  while  still  others 
gradually  harden,  lose  their  unctuous  feel,  and  become  tough,  flexible 
and  varnish-like.  These  last  are  called  drying  oils. 

Chemically  considered,  the  fixed  oils  are  mixtures,  in  various  pro- 
portions, of  two  or  more  compounds.  The  most  important  of  these  are: 

Olein,  Stearin,  Palmitin,  Myristin  and  Laurin. 

There  are  several  modifications  of  Olein,  also  many  others  of  minor 
importance  such  as  Butyrin. 

These  are  regarded  as  ethereal  salts.  For  the  most  part  they  a.e 
compounds  of  Glycerin  (a  triatomic  alcohol),  with  Acids  of  the  oleic 
•\r\dfafty  acid  series,  and,  on  saponification,  yield  Glycerin;  but  some 
of  them,  when  saponified,  yield,  instead  of  glycerin,  some  of  the 
higher  or  more  complex  monatomic  alcohols.  To  this  class  belong 
the  waxes. 


THE   FIXED  OILS.  375 

PREPARATION. 

Animal  fats  are  prepared  from  the  tissues  usually  by  heating  them 
to  their  melting  point  or  a  little  above,  either  alone  or  in  the  presence 
of  water,  and  separating  the  fused  fat  from  the  tissue  by  straining. 

The  fixed  oils  from  vegetable  structures  are  usually  separated  from 
the  containing  tissues  by  expression;  sometimes  by  extraction  with  a 
volatile  solvent,  such  as  Benzin  or  Carbon  Disulphide. 

The  material  is  usually  ground  or  crushed,  and  then  pressed,  either  cold  or 
between  metallic  surfaces  heated  to  a  temperature  a  little  above  that  of  the 
melting  point  of  the  oil.  Sometimes,  however,  the  oil  is  obtained  by  boiling 
the  material  in  the  presence  of  water,  and  separating  the  refuse  solid  matter  by 
straining.  The  product  obtained  by  this  last  process  is  generally  inferior  to 
that  derived  by  pressure  alone. 

ADULTERATIONS. 

These  are  chiefly  mixtures  of  the  rarer  and  more  expensive  kind  with 
common  and  cheaper  ones,  and  on  account  of  the  resemblance  in 
composition,  the  fraud  is  difficult  to  detect 

The  principal  means  of  detection  are  by  the  odor  when  warmed, 
and  by  their  behavior  to  certain  reagents,  color  reactions  with  acids, 
and  such  oxidizing  agents  as  Silver  Nitrate. 

There  are  a  few  oils  that  are  nearly  odorless,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  have  a  more  or  less  characteristic  odor,  which,  by  carefully  com- 
paring a  sample  of  a  suspected  product  with  one  of  known  purity, 
would  enable  one  to  detect  the  presence  of  impurities.  As  the  fixed 
oils  do  not  differ  widely  in  their  densities,  the  specific  gravity  test 
must  be  carefully  applied. 

The  determination  of  the  boiling  point  is  also  serviceable  in  some  cases,  par- 
ticularly in  determining  whether  or  not  there  has  been  an  admixture  of  volatile 
oils. 

The  presence  of  fish  oil  as  an  adulterant  of  any  of  the  vegetable  oils  may 
readily  be  detected  by  passing  a  current  of  Chlorine  gas  through  the  oil  If  it 
be  pure,  no  change  of  color  will  take  place,  but  if  fish  oil  has  been  used  as  an 
adulterant,  the  mixture  will  turn  dark. 

Another  test  applicable  in  a  few  cases  is  the  sulphuric  aciJ  test.      If  ten  parts 
of  the  oil  be  heated  with  one  of  Sulphuric   Acid,  different   colorations   will   be 
produced,  which  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  oil.      For  instance,  Oil  of 
Black  Mustard  will  be  changed  to  a  bluish  g>-een,  Linseed  Oil  will  turn  </., 
brown,  and  Fish  Oil  will  assume  a  reddish  color. 

PURIFICATION    AND    PRESERVATION. 

As  has  already  been  stated  the  presence  of  mucilaginous  and  pro- 
teid  roin Bounds  in  oils  tends  to  produce  rancidity;  it  is,  therefore, 
desirable  to  get  rid  of  these  imp ;rities. 


276  LIQUID   FATS. 

This  is  done  either  by  filtration  or  by  the  introduction  of  some 
reagent  that  destroys  the  impurities.  When  the  quantity  to  be  puri- 
fied is  small,  the  filtration  process  is  generally  resorted  to.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  this  process  that  the  filter  be  perfectly  dry,  or  the 
water-bath  filter  may  be  used. 

When  the  quantity  is  considerable,  Sulphuric  Acid  is  gradually  added  to  the 
amount  of  from  i  to  2%.  This  carbonizes  the  impurities,  and  after  separating 
the  acid  by  repeated  agitation  with  water,  the  carbonized  impurities  are  gotten 
rid  of  by  nitration. 

As  many  fixed  oils  undergo  gradual  change,  even  if  pure,  when  exposed  to 
light  and  air,  they  should  be  kept  in  closed  vessels;  also,  as  these  changes  occur 
more  rapidly  at  an  elevated  than  at  a  low  temperature,  they  should  be  kept  in  a 
cool  place. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

The  Fixed  Oils  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

I.  Those  which  yield  glycerin- 
(\)    Liquid  fats. 

a.  Drying  Oils:     Flaxseed,  Hemp,  Nut  and  Poppy  Oils. 

b.  Non-Drying  Oils:     Olive,  Almond,  Colza,  Rape  and  Lard,  Tallow 

and  Neatsfoot  Oils. 

Intermediate  Oils  partaking  partly  (  ~1S..       ^     A  r\-\  r- 
of  the  characters  of  both    '  Cotton  Seed  Oil  Group. 

)  Castor  Oil  Group. 

(2)  Solid  fats. 

a.  The  Non-Odorous:     Lard,  Suet  and  Wool-Fats. 

b.  The  Odorous:     Nutmeg,  Laurel,  Palm,  Cacao,  Cocoanut  Oils  and 

Butter. 

II.  Those  which  yield  no  glycerin,  the  Waxes. 
These  Groups  will  be  considered  in  their  order. 

LIQUID  FATS. 

Under  Liquid  Fats  are  included  those  which  are  liquid  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  but  many  of  these  become  solid  or  partly  so  at  a  low 
temperature.  Usually  b)  reducing  the  temperature  one  of  the  con- 
stituent oils  solidifies  before  the  other,  and  hence  often  by  this  means 
it  may  be  separated. 

THE    DRYINC    OILS. 

These  are  all  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  are  distin- 
guished from  the  other  oils  by  the  fact  that  by  exposure  to  the  air  they 
are  gradually  converted  into  tough,  flexible,  varnish-like  masses.  They 
arc  not  solidified  by  Nitrous  Acid. 

The  most  important  members  of  the  group  are: 

Flaxseed  Oil.  Oleum  Lini,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  pressure  from 
seeds  of  Linum  usitatissimum  without  the  use  ot  heat. 


NON-DRYING   OILS.  277 

Color,  yellow,  or  if  obtained  by  hot  pressure,  darker.  Odor,  slight.  Taste, 
bland.  Sp.  gr.  o  930  to  0.940;  does  not  congeal  above  — 2o"C.  Composed  of 
palmitin,  myristin  and  linolein,  mainly. 

1,'ses. — As  demulcent;  externally,  as  protective;  mixed  with  Lime  water  as  a 
dressing  for  burns,  "Carron  Oil." 

Off.  Prep. — Linimentum  Calcis;  Sapo  Mollis. 

Oil  of  Hemp.  -Oleum  Cannahis.  -  Obtained  by  pressure  from 
crushed  fruit  of  Cannabis  sativa. 

Color,  green,  changing  to  light  brown  on  exposure.  Odor,  disagreeablp 
Taste,  mild.  Sp.  gr.  0.930.  Solidifies  at  about — i5°C.  Composed  of  palmitin, 
Jinolein,  and  possibly  other  oils. 

i'ses. — As  demulcent  and  protective.  , 

Nut  Oil. — Oleum  Juglandis. — Obtained  by  pressure  from  the  seeds 
of  various  species  of  Juglans. 

Color,  greenish  or  none.  Odor,  faint  Taste,  bland,  nut-like,  Sp  gr.  0.92. 
Solidifies  at  about  —  i8°C.  Contains  probably  linolein  with  other  fixed  oils. 

Uses.  —  As  a  demulcent  and  protective. 

Poppy-Seed  Oil. — Oleum  Papaveris. — Obtained  by  pressure  from 
the  crushed  seeds  of  Papaver  somniferum. 

Color,  light  yellow.  Odor,  slight.  Taste,  bland.  Sp.  gr.  0.92.  Solidifies 
at — i8°C.  Contains  linolein,  palmitin,  and  probably  other  fixed  oils. 

Uses. — Protective,  demulcent. 

THK    NON-DRYING    OILS. 

These  oils  do  not  solidify  on  exposure  to  the  air.  They  are  also 
characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  become  solidified  when  treated  with 
Nitrous  Acid.  As  a  group  also  they  are  less  fluid  than  the  drying 
oils. 

They  may  be  subdivided  into  two  kinds:  Those  of  vegetable  and 
those  of  animal  origin. 

To  the  former  belong  the  oils  of: 

Olive,  Almond,  Colza, 

Mustard,  Rape,  Earth-nut. 

And  to  the  animal  oils: 

Neatsfoot,  Lard  Oil,  Tallow  and  Bone  Oil 

The  most  important  of  the  first  kind  are: 

Olive  Oil. — Oleum  Oliv?e,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  the  fruit  of  Olea 
Kuropjea;  the  best  quality,  or  virgin  oil,  by  cold  pressure  of  crushed, 
ripe  fruit;  a  second  quality,  known  as  Malaga  Oil,  from  the  unripe 
fruit.  By  mixing  the  residue  from  the  expression  with  hot  water,  and 
again  expressing  and  also  from  decayed  material,  the  inferior  qualities 
of  oil  are  obtained- 


278  FISH   OILS. 

Color,  yellow  or  greenish  yellow.  Odor,  faint,  agreeable.  Taste,  bland. 
Sp.  gr.  0.918  Crystalline  deposit  at  io°C.,  and  at  o°C.  forms  a  whitish,  granu- 
lar mass.  Contains,  chiefly  olein,  also  small  quantities  of  palmitin,  cholesterin, 
arachin,  and  probably  stearin. 

Largely  adulterated  with  Cotton  seed  and  other  cheap  oils  whose  presence 
may  be  detected  by  the  solidification  with  Mercuric  Nitrate,  or  the  coloration 
produced  by  heating  with  an  alcoholic  solution  Silver  Nitrate.  For  these  tests 
see  U.  S.  Ph. 

Uses. — As  lenitive,  demulcent  and  in  many  Ointments  and  Plasters. 
Off.  Prep. — Kmplastrum  Plumbi;  Unguentum  Diachylon. 

Oil  of  Almond. — Oleum  Amygdalae  Expressum,  U.  S. — Obtained 
from  the  crushed  seeds  of  Primus  Amygdalus  var.  amara,  by  powerful 
pressure,  previous  to  their  treatment  for  obtaining  the  Oil  of  Bitter 
almond.  May  also  be  obtained  in  same  way  from  the  seeds  of  the 
Sweet  Almond. 

Color,  yellowish  Odor,  faint,  nutty,  Taste,  bland.  Sp.  gr.  o  92.  Solidi- 
fies at  about  — 2o°C.  Contains  olein  and  a  little  palmitin. 

Oils  expressed  from  peach  and  apricot  kernels  resemble  almond  oil,  but 
\vhenthelatteris  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  Nitric  Acid,  sp.  gr.  1.16,  and 
heated  to  65  C.,  it  does  not  turn  yellow  or  orange,  while  the  oils  from  peach 
and  apricot,  treated  in  the  same  way,  do. 

Uses. — As  lenitive  and  demulcent. 

Off.   Prep. — Unguentum  Aquae  Rosae. 

The  most  important  animal  non-drying  oils  are: 

Lard  Oil. — Oleum  Adipis,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  Lard,  by  ex- 
posing it  to  a  low  temperature  and  then  subjecting  it  to  great  pressure. 
Nearly  odorless,  colorless  and  tasteless.  Sp.  gr.  0.910:  deposits  crystals  at 
io"C  ;  at  o"C.  forms  a  white  semi-solid  mass.  Contains  olein,  with  some 
'•tearin  and  palmitin. 

Off.  Prep. — Unguentum  Hydrargyri  Nitratis. 

Neatsfoot  Oil. — Oleum  Bubulum.—  Obtained  by  boiling  with  water 
the  fatty  tissue  of  neatsfeet  and  straining. 

Little  odor  or  taste  Sp.  gr.  0.915.  Solid  fats  begin  to  separate  at  o"C.  Con- 
tains olein  and  solid  fatty  bodies. 

Uses. — Mostly  externally. 

INTERMEDIATE    OILS. 

Oils  partaking  partly  of  the  characters  of  both  Drying  and  Non- 
Drying  Oils. 

This  is  a  miscellaneous  group,  comprising  oils  both  of  animal  and 
vegetable  origin,  most  of  which  thicken  but  do  not  solidify  on  ex- 
posure. 

They  agree  in  becoming  more  or  less  thickened,  but  in  not  solidi- 
fying when  treated  with  Nitrous  Acid. 


COTTONSEED   OIL.  279 

They  are  divisible  into  three  distinct  sub-groups,  as  follows: 

(1)  The  Fish  Oils;  (2)  the  Cotton-Seed  Oil  group;  (3)  the  Castor 
Oil  group. 

The  Fish  Oils  include: 

Cod  Oil,  Cod  Liver  Oil,  Hake  Oil,  Sperm  Oil,  Porpoise  Oil, 
Shark  Oil  and  various  others. 

For  the  most  part  they  change  their  consistence  but  little  on  pro- 
longed exposure  to  the  air;  they  turn  brown  on  exposure  to  Chlorine 
gas;  are  reddened\>y  boiling  with  caustic  Alkali;  are  but  little  thickened 
on  treatment  with  Nitrous  Acid,  and  have  a  more  or  less  disagreeable 
fishy  odor. 

Cod  Liver  Oil. — Oleum  Morrhuje,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  cold  ex- 
pression from  the  livers  of  Gadus  Morrhua  and  other  species  of  the 
same  genus,  and  preserved  from  contact  with  the  air. 

Color,  light  yellow.  Odor,  fishy.  Taste  disagreeable.  Sp.  gr.  0.92. 
Should  separate  very  little  or  no  solid  fat  at  o°C.  Contains  olein,  palmitin, 
stearin,  and  minute  quantities  of  iodine,  bromine,  biliary  compounds,  etc. 

Uses.—  Alterative,  demulcent,  nutritive.  The  inferior  oils  are  amber-colored 
or  brownish,  of  a  more  disagreeable  odor  and  taste,  and  they  deposit  crystal- 
line matter  at  a  temperature  higher  than  o°C. 

The  remaining  oils  of  this  group  are  of  but  little  value  in  pharmacy; 
they  are  chiefly  employed  as  lubricating  media. 

The  Cotton-seed  Oil  group  includes: 

Cotton-seed  Oil.  Sesami  Oil,  Beech-nut  Oil,  Sunflower  Oil  and 
some  others. 

Their  viscosity  is  considerably  increased  by  exposure  to  the  air; 
they  are  considerably  thickened  by  the  action  of  Nitrous  Acid,  and  they 
are  mostly  bland  to  the  taste,  and  nearly  odorless. 

Cotton-Seed  Oil. — Oleum  Gossypii  Seminis,  U.  S. — Obtained  by 
pressure  from  the  crushed  seeds  of  Gossypium  herbaceum.  The  crude 
brownish  oil  is  treated  with  boiling  water,  and  afterward  with  a  little 
alkali  to  bleach  and  purify  it. 

Color,  yellowish.  Odor,  slight.  Taste,  sweetish,  similar  to  that  of  almond 
oil.  Sp.  gr.  0.92  to  0.93.  Solidifies  at  o°C.,  or  a  little  below.  Contains  olein, 
palmitin,  and  yellow  coloring  matter. 

Uses. — As  a  demulcent. 

Off.  Prep.  —Liniment um       Ammonise;  L.  Camphorse. 
Benne  Oil. — Oleum  Sesami,  U.    S.  — Teel  Oil. — Obtained  by  pres- 
sure from  the  crushed  seeds  of  Sesamum  Indicum. 

Color,  transparent,  yellow.  Odor,  little  or  none.  Taste,  bland.  Sp.  gr. 
0.92.  Solidifies  at  about  5°C.,  or  a  little  above.  Contains  olein.  palmitin. 


280  CASTOR  OIL. 

stearin,  and  myristin.     Uses,  as  a   demulcent.     Test,    turns   red-brown   when 
treated  with  a  mixture  of  a  cold  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 

The  remaining  oils  of  this  group,  in  common  with  other  oils  pos- 
sessing similar  properties,  such  as  the  oil  of  the  Peanut,  etc.,  are  used 
for  domestic  and  culinary  purposes.  Their  employment  in  pharmacy, 
however,  is  comparatively  rare. 

The  Castor  Oil  group  include  Castor  Oil  and  Croton  Oil. 

They  are  somewhat  denser  and  more  viscid  than  the  members  of  the 
sub-group,  behave  similar  to  them  as  regards  exposure  to  the  air  and 
Nitrous  Acid,  but  differ  from  all  the  other  oils  in  being  soluble  in 
Alcohol,  and  in  possessing  strongly  purgative  properties. 

Castor  Oil. — Oleum  Ricini,  U.  S. — Obtained  trom  the  dried  and 
crushed  seeds  of  Ricinus  communis.  That  obtained  by  cold  pressure 
is  the  best.  It  is  purified  by  agitating  with  warm  water,  and  decant- 
ing the  oil. 

Color,  none.  Odor,  light.  Taste,  nauseous,  slightly  acrid.  Sp.  gr.  0.96. 
Thickens  at  o.C.  and  at — i8°C.  congeals  to  a  yellowish  mass.  Soluble  in  an  equal 
weight  of  alcohol.  Consists  of  ricinolein,  palmitin,  and  an  acrid  principle. 

Croton  Oil. — Oleum  Tiglii,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  pressure  from  the 
crushed  seeds  of  Croton  Tiglium.  Sometimes  also  obtained  by  treat- 
ing crushed  seeds  with  carbon  disulphide  and  evaporating  the  solvent. 

Color,  yellowish  or  brownish.  Odor,  slight,  peculiar.  Taste,  very  acrid. 
Sp.  gr.  0.95.  Soluble  when  fresh  in  about  sixty  parts  of  alcohol,  but  its  solu- 
bility increases  with  age.  Contains  palmitin,  stearin,  laurin,  myristin,  various 
odorous  oils,  as  glycerides  of  valerianic  and  butyric  acids;  and  also  tiglinic  acid 
and  crotonol. 

Uses. — As  an  irritant,  rubefacient  and  sometimes  internally  as  a  drastic 
purgative.  In  doses  exceeding  2  minims  it  is  poisonous. 


THE  SOLID  FATS. 

Under  these  are  included  all  those  Fatty  substances  which  remain 
solid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Their  consistence  depends  upon  the 
relative  proportion  of  the  various  constituents  and  they  are  hard  or 
soft,  as  they  contain  more  or  less  of  Stearin  or  Olein,  besides  the  prin- 
ciples of  intermediate  consistence,  palmitin,  myristin,  laurin,  etc. 
Their  melting  points  are  more  or  less  variable,  and  may,  under  certain 
conditions,  be  permanently  altered.  Some  are  of  vegetable  and  others 
of  animal  origin  and  they  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  viz.:  Vege- 
table and  Animal  Fats.  The  vegetable  fats  all  contain  either  a  volatile 
oil  or  some  other  odorous  substance. 

Cacao  Butler. — Oleum  Theobromatis,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  hot 
pressure  from  the  seeds  of  Theobroma  Cacao,  deprived  of  their  seed- 
coats  and  crushed.  Derived  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
Chocolate. 

Color,  yellowish,  changing  to  white  on  exposure.  Hard.  Odor,  aromatic. 
Taste,  similar  to  chocolate.  Sp.  gr.  0.96.  Melts  at  about  32°C.  (9o°F.).  Con- 
tains olein,  stearin,  palmitin,  arachin,  and  laurin. 

Uses. — As  a  vehicle  for  Suppositories  and  Ointments.     Demulcent. 

Cocoanut  Oil.-—  Oleum  Cocos. — Obtained  from  the  seeds  of  Cocos 
nucifera,  by  boiling  them  in  water  and  applying  hot  pressure. 

Color,  white.  Consistence  of  butter.  Odor,  peculiar.  Taste,  bland  (but 
rapidly  becomes  rancid,  when  both  odor  and  taste  are  disagreeable).  Melting 
point  from  22°C.  to  28°C.  Contains  laurin,  palmitin,  stearin,  myristin;  also 
glycerides  of  caprinic,  caprylic,  and  capronic  acids 

Expressed  Oil  of  Nutmeg. — Oleum  Myristicae  Kxpressum. — Ob- 
tained by  hot  pressure  from  the  seeds  of  Myristica  fragrans  and  other 
species  of  the  same  genus. 

Color,  yellowish  or  whitish,  mottled  with  orange-brown.  Odor,  aromatic. 
Taste,  spicy.  Sp.  gr.  0.995,  Melts  at  about  45°C.  Soluble  in  four  times  its 
weight  of  strong  alcohol.  Contains,  besides  volatile  oil,  myristin,  myristic 
acid,  and  coloring  matter. 

Uses.  — Stimulant,  carminative. 

Laurel  Oil. — Oleum  Lauri. — Obtained  by  steeping  the  fruit  of 
Laurus  nobilis  in  hot  water  and  subjecting  it  to  hot  pressure. 

Color,  greenish.  Consistence,  semi-solid,  granular.  Odor  and  taste,  aro- 
matic, spicy.  Melts  at  about  4O°C.  Contains  volatile  oil,  laurin  and  other 
fat  substances. 

Uses. — In  Ointment,  etc.      Stimulant  and  nervine. 

Palm  Oil. — Oleum  Palmae. — Obtained  by  heating  the  fruit  of  Elais 
Guiniensis  with  hot  water  and  then  subjecting  it  to  hot  pressure. 

Color,  orange  red,  but  bleached  by  exposure  to  light    Odor,  pleasant.  Taste, 


282  ANIMAL   FATS 

bland.    Melts  at  2j°C.     Rapidly  becomes  rancid  on  exposnre.     Contains  olein 
palmitin,  and  a  coloring  principle. 

Uses. — Mainly  for  soaps,  sometimes  as  demulcent. 

The  principal  solid  Animal  fats  are: 

Lard. — Adeps,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  the  fatty  tissues  of  the  Hog, 
Sus  scrofa,  by  heating  them  with  water  and  straining. 

Color,  white.  Consistence,  soft.  Taste,  bland.  Sp.  gr.  0.938.  Melts  at 
38°  to  4O°C.  (ioo°F. )  to  a  liquid. 

Uses. — As  a  vehicle  for  Ointments  and  also  in  Cerates. 

Adeps  Benzoinatus,  U.  S. — Benzoinated  Lard. — Prepared  by  digesting  Lard 
with  2.%  of  powdered  Benzoin  and  straining.  For  use  in  hot  weather,  5%  oi 
wax  should  be  added. 

Suet.—  Sevum,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  the  fatty  tissues  of  the  ab- 
domen of  the  Sheep,  Ovis  aries,  by  heating  (preferably  in  a  water- 
bath)  and  straining. 

Color,  white.  Consistence,  hard.  Taste/bland.  Melts  at  about  45  C.  Con- 
tains olein  and  palmitin,  but  chiefly  stearin.  That  from  the  Ox  is  similar  in  its 
properties. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  Cerates. 

Wool- Fat,  Hydrous.  —  Adeps  Lanas  Hydrosus,  U.  S.  —  Lanolin. 
The  purified  fat  of  the  Wool  of  the  Sheep,  mixed  with  not  more 
than  30%  of  water.  The  crude  fat  is  purified  and  ir'xed  with  water, 
which  it  has  the  power  to  absorb,  furnishing  a  mixture  of  ointment-like 
consistence. 

Color,  white.  Consistence  nearly  hard.  Melts  at  4o°C  Contains  chiefly 
cholesterin,  chemically  an  alcohol  not  yielding  glycerin. 

Uses. — As  an  ointment  vehicle  for  endermic  medication,  that  is,  when  sys- 
temic effect  is  desired. 

Buffer. — Butyrum. — Obtained  by  churning  the  cream  of  cow's 
Milk. 

Color,  yellow.  Consistency,  rather  soft.  Odor,  pleasant,  peculiar,  but  when 
rancid,  disagreeable,  owing  to  the  presence  of  butyric  acid.  Taste,  agreeable, 
bland  Melts  at  about  28°C.  Contains  olein,  palmitin,  stearin,  small  quanti- 
ties of  glycerides  of  butyric,  caprylic,  capronic  and  caprinic  acids,  and  traces  of 
an  odorous  principle. 

Uses. — As  a  demulcent  and  sometimes  in  Ointments.  For  pharmaceutical  uses 
should  be  fresh,  unsalted,  and  free  from  casein. 

THE  WAXES. 

The  second  of  the  two  principal  divisions  of  the  Fats  consists  of 
those  which  yield  no  glycerin,  but  instead  a  compltx  monatomic  alco- 
hol. They  are  called  Waxes,  and  are  solid at  ordinary  temperatures. 

They  include:  Bees'  wax,  Spermaceti  and  Chinese.  Brazil  Myrtle 
and  Palm  and  some  other  waxes. 


WAXES.  283 

The  most  important,  pharmaceutically,  are: 

Wax. — Cera  Flava,  U.  S. — Obtained  by  melting  the  Honeycomb 
in  hot  water,  separating  the  liquids  by  decantation  and  collecting  and 
straining  the  wax. 

Color,  yellow.  Odor,  somewhat  aromatic,  honey-like.  Nearly  tasteless. 
Melts  at  about  64°C.  Sp.  gr.  0.96.  Contains  cerin,  myricin,  "aromatic  and 
coloring  matters. 

White  Wax. — Cera  Alba,  U.  S. — Is  prepared  from  the  yellow  by 
exposing  it  in  thin  layers  for  some  time  to  moisture  and  light.  Melts 
at  6s°C. 

Wax  is  often  adulterated  with  tallow  or  paraffin.  The  former  is  detected  by 
its  lower  sp.  gr. .  and  by  the  fact  that  the  mixture  is  softer  than  pure  wax. 
Paraffin  is  best  detected  by  heating  one  part  of  the  suspected  wax  with  five  of 
Sulphuric  Acid  to  i6o'C.,  and  diluting  the  mixture  with  distilled  water.  If 
paraffin  be  present  it  will  separate  out,  since  it  is  not  affected  by  the  acid,  while 
the  wax  undergoes  chemical  change. 

Uses. — In  Cerates,  Plasters  and  Ointments  mainly. 

Spermaceti. — Cetaceum,  U.  S.- — Obtained  from  deposits  in  cavities 
in  the  head  of  the  Sperm-Whale,  Physeter  macrocephalus. 

Color,  white,  translucent.  Consistence,  hard,  crystalline.  Without  odor  or 
taste.  Sp.  gr.  about  0.95°.  Melts  at  so°C.  Composed  chiefly  of  cetin. 

Uses. — In  Ointments  and  Cerates. 

Petroleum  Ointmen t.—  Petrolatum,  U.  S. — Sometimes  classed  with  the  waxes 
because  of  it  containing  Paraffin;  was  treated  of  under  Petrolatum. 

OILY  DRUGS,  GROUP  V. 

This  Group  includes  a  few  Drugs  whose  chief  value  in  pharmacy  is 
due  to  a  bland  Fixed  Oil  they  contain.  The  oil  is  usually  associated 
with  gum  or  mucilage  as  in  the  case  of  Almond  and  Flaxseed  and  these 
drugs  have,  therefore,  been  treated  with  the  Mucilaginous  Drugs  of 
Group  1, 

The  only  other  official  is: 

Lycopodium. — Lycopodium,  U.  S. — Spores  of  Lycopodium  clava- 
tum,  Linne,  and  other  species  of  Lycopodium.  Nat.  Ord.,  Lycopo- 
diaceae.  Constituents:  Fixed  oil  47  per  cent. 

Uses. — Asa  protective  for  raw  and  inflamed  surfaces.  Also  as  a  "dusting 
powder"  for  pills. 

Lycopodium  is  very  combustible,  burning  with  a  fine  rose-colored  flame, 
and  is  largely  used  in  pyrotechnics.  It  should  be  kept  remote  from  light  and 
fire 

To  this  Group  belong  the  parts  of  plants  whence  are  derived  the  Oils,  viz.. 
The  fruits  of  Olive,  Laurel  and  Palm;  the  seeds  of  the  Cotton  plant,  Sesami, 
Sunflower, .Poppy;  the  various  "Nuts,"  Butternut,  Peanut,  Beech  and  Cocoanut; 
the  seeds  of  Cacao,  and  those  that  furnish  the  Castor  and  Croton  Oils 


Derivatives  of  Fats. 


SOAPS. 

When  fats  or  oils  are  mixed  with  salifiable  bases  the  principles 
which  they  contain,  vi/..:  Olein,  Palmitin  and  Stearin,  etc.,  arc 
decomposed  into  their  respective  acids,  oleic,  palmitic  and  stcaric 
acids,  which  unite  with  the  base  forming  soap. 

Fats,  being  mostly  compounds  of  Glycerin  with  one  or  more  of 
these  Acids,  are  split  up,  when  boiled  with  the  base,  by  the  reaction 
into  salts  and  glycerin.  The  Glycerin  is  set  free  and  may  be  obtained 
as  a  by-product  in  soap-making. 

Soaps,  therefore,  chemically  considered  are  salts,  and  consist  ot 
oleates,  palmitates  and  stearatcs  of  the  respective  bases,  according  to 
the  proportion  of  the  several  principles  in  the  fats. 

Soaps  may  be  divided  into  two  classes: 

(1)  Soluble  soaps.      (2)    Insoluble  soaps. 

Soluble  Soaps  comprise  those  made  with  Soda  and  Potassa  and  are 
respectively  termed  hard  and  soft  soap.  The  finest  Soap  is  made  from 
Olive  Oil  and  is  sold  under  the  name  of  Castile  Soap,  which  furnishes 
the  base  for  the  finely  perfumed  toilet  Soaps.  It  is  official  under  the 
title: 

Soap. — Sapo,  U.  S. — White  Castile  Soap. — Prepared  from  Soda 
and  Olive  Oil. 

When  dried  to  a  constant  weight  at  a  temperature  of  iio"C,,  it  should  not 
lose  more  than  36%  of  its  weight  (water). 

Off.  Prep.  —  Emplastrum  Saponis;  Linimentum  Saponis. 

Soft  Soap. — Sapo  mollis,  U.  S. — Sapo  viridis,  Green  Soap,  U.  S. 
Ph.,  '80.  Prepared  by  heating  40  Gm.  Linseed  Oil  with  9  Gm. 
Potassa  dissolved  in  45  C.C.  of  Water  and  adding  4  C.C.  Alcohol, 
until  the  mixture  is  completely  soluble  in  boiling  water. 

Off.  Prep. — Linimentum  Saponis  Mollis. 

01. FATES. 

Insoluble  Soaps  or  Oleates,  as  they  are  also  termed,  are  formed  by 
combining  the  fat  acid  with  an  Earth  or  metallic  oxide,  i.  e..  Alumina; 
Lead;  Zinc.  Usually  made  from  Castile  Soap  they  are  not  pure 
oleates  but  mixtures  of  oleates  and  palmitates.  They  are  either  dry 
powders  or  of  the  consistence  of  cerates. 

Uses. — In  various  skin  affections. 

284 


OLEATES.  2*5 

They  are  produced  by  double  decomposition  between  a  Soluble 
Soap  and  a  solution  of  the  Salt  in  water.  (See  Nat.  Form.). 

The  class  of  Official  Oleates  are  chemical  solutions  of  bases  in  Oleic 
Acid;  the  acid  is  in  excess  and  they  are  therefore  liquid  or  semi-liquid: 

OUatum  Hydrargyri,  U.  S — Made  by  dissolving  20  Gm.  Yellow  Mercuric 
Oxide  in  80  Gm  Oleic  Acid 

Oleatum  Veratrini,  U.  S.— Two  per  cent  Veratrine  in  Oleic  Acid. 

Oteatum  Zinci.  .U.  S. — Five  per  cent  Zinc  Oxide  in  Oleic  Acid  Should  not 
be  confounded  with  the  dry  Oleate. 

Oleic  Acid.  —  HClgH33O.,. — Acidurii  Oleicum,  U.  S.— A  monobasic 
acid  of  the  series  of  Acids  contained  in  Fats  and  Oils. 

By  subjecting  fats  to  cold  and  pressure  it  may  be  separated  from 
the  more  solid  stearic  acid  and  through  this  is  obtained  as  a  by-prod- 
uct in  the  manufacture  of  stearin  candles.  It  may  also  be  produced 
from  Soaps  by  saponifying  Olive  Oil  or  Almond  Oil  by  boiling  one  of 
these  with  Lead  Oxide  and  Water,  as  in  the  making  of  Lead  Plaster. 

The  lead  plaster,  or  Lead  Oleate,  is  decomposed  with  Hydrochloric  Acid, 
which  sets  the  Oleic  Acid  free.  The  acid  is  then  obtained  by  dissolving  it  in 
Benzin  and  evaporating  the  solvent.  The  crude  product  is  exposed  to  a  tem- 
perature of  4  C.,  when  the  pure  acid  is  separated  from  the  solid  portion  by 
pressure. 

A  yellowish  liquid,  sp.  gr.  o  goo;  insoluble  in  water  and  freely  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ether.  It  becomes  semi-solid  a  few  degrees  above  the  freezing 
point  and  at  a  lower  temperature  congeals  to  a  solid  mass. 

Stearic  Acid. — HC.aH_O., — Acidum  Stearicum,  U.  S.  —  One  of  the 

18          oj         & 

series  of  Fat  Acids,  combined  with  glycerin,  constituting  the  principal 
portion  of  the  solid  animal  Fats;  also  present  in  some  vegetable  fats. 
It  is  chiefly  prepared  from  Tallow  by  separating  the  Stearin  from  Olein 
by  expression  and  forming  the  latter  into  Soap  with  an  Alkali,  when 
the  Stearic  Acid  is  obtained  by  decomposing  the  stearate  (soap)  with 
an  Acid,  as  in  the  preceding. 

A  hard,  white,  glossy  solid;  insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  45  parts  of  alcohol 
readily  in  boiling  alcohol  and  in  ether.     The  pure  acid  melts  at  69  C. ;   the 
commercial  acid  should  have  a  melting  point  not  lower  than  56    C. 

I'scs. — In  the  preparation  of  Soaps;  also  in  Suppositoria  Glycerini,  U.  S 

Glycerin. — C.JH.(OH)3. — Glycerinum,  U.  S. — A  liquid  obtained  by 
the  decomposition  of  Animal  or  Vegetable  Fats  or  Fixed  Oils  ami 
containing  not  less  than  95  per  cent  of  absolute  glycerin.  Chemicalh 
it  is  a  triatomic  alcohol;  propenyl,  or  glyceryl  hydrate. 

It  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in   the  manufacture  of  Soap,  and  of 
Lead  Plaster,  or  by  subjecting  Fats  to  a  high  temperature  under  pn-^ 
sure  and  in  the  presence   of  water,  when  they  are  decomposed   into 
fatty  acids  and  Glycerin,  the  latter  passing  into  solution  in  the  water. 


286  GLYCERIN. 

A  transparent,  colorless,  oily  liquid,  sweet  and  warm  to  the  taste;  sp  gr. 
not  less  than  1.25,  which  corresponds  to  g$%  of  absolute  glycerin.  Its  boiling 
point  is  i65°C.,  but  it  does  not  vaporize  unchanged,  a  portion  of  it  being  con- 
verted into  acrolein  and  other  empyreumatic  products.  It  may,  however,  be 
distilled  unchanged  in  a  current  of  superheated  steam,  and  advantage  is  taken 
of  this  fact  in  purifying  it.  It  may  be  obtained,  but  with  difficulty,  in  the 
crystalline  form.  It  is  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  water  and  alcohol,  in  a 
mixture  of  3  of  alcohol  and  i  of  ether;  miscible  slightly  with  fixed  and  volatile 
oils;  insoluble  in  ether,  benzin,  chloroform,  etc. 

Glycerin,  like  the  other  alcohols  described,  is  combustible,  and  burns  with  a 
bluish,  non-luminous  flame.  Like  them  also,  there  may  be  formed  from  it  a 
series  of  Ethers  and  Aldehydes. 

Nitro-Glycerin  is  regarded  as  one  of  its  ethereal  salts.  It  is  formed  by  pour- 
ing Glycerin  drop  by  drop  into  a  mixture  of  Nitric  and  Sulphuric  Acids  in  a 
vessel  immersed  in  a  freezing  mixture.  The  resulting  oily  liquid  is  afterward 
purified  by  washing  it  in  water.  Taken  internally,  it  is  poisonous.  Mixed  with 
some  inert  material  like  infusorial  earth,  it  constitutes  dynamite. 

Uses. — It  is  used  medicinally  under  the  name  of  glonoin,  or  trinitrin  in  the 
form  of  a  one  per  cent  alcoholic  solution.  (See  Spiritus  Glonoini,  U.  S.  Ph. ) 

The  pharmaceutical  uses  of  glycerin  are  important;  it  is  the  vehicle 
for  the  official  Glycerites,  enters  into  the  menstrua  of  several  Fluid 
Extracts  and  Tinctures,  is  a  constituent  of  the  official  tragacanth  mu- 
cilage, and  serves  as  a  vehicle  in  many  other  preparations. 


The  Tannins. 

Tannic  Acid  or  Tannin  is  a  substance  peculiar  to,  and  widely  dis- 
tributed in  many  plants.  It  occurs  in  various  modifications  as  gallo- 
tannic  acids  from  Nut-gall,  quertitannic  acid  from  the  Oak,  catechu-  and 
kramerotannic  acid  from  Catechu  and  Krameria  respectively,  cincho- 
tannic  acid  from  Cinchona  and  many  others. 

They  are  composed  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen  in  different 
and  various  proportions;  are  usually  amorphous  and  soluble  in  water, 
alcohol  and  glycerin;  their  solutions  have  weak  acid  reaction  and  they 
are  precipitated  by  most  of  the  Metallic  Salts  and  the  Alkaloids. 
Boiled  with  dilute  acids  they  are  split  into  glucose  and  phlobaphene 
and  because  of  this  property  they  have  been  regarded  as  glucosides. 

They  have  the  property  of  forming  an  insoluble  compound  with  gelatin, 
hence  their  value  in  the  process  of  tanning,  the  tannin  producing  with  the  gela- 
tin of  raw  hide  an  impervious,  flexible  surface  upon  which  the  usefulness  of 
leather  depends.  Applied  to  the  skin  or  mucous  surfaces  of  the  human  body  a 
similar  but  milder  action  causes  a  contraction  of  the  tissues,  a  property  termed 
astringent.  The  therapeutic  use  of  tannins,  or  drugs  containing  them  called 
Astringent  Drugs,  depends  upon  this  property;  indicated  in  irritated  or  other- 
wise diseased  mucous  surfaces. 

The  tannins  are  characterized  by  producing  marked  coloration  with 
Salts  of  Iron  which  may  be  either  green  or  blue-black,  and  the  different 
varieties  may  in  fact  be  distinguished  through  these  variations  in 
color. 

Tannic  Acid.—  HCUH9O9.  —  Acidum  Tannicum,  U.  S.  —  Gallo- 
tannic  Acid,  the  variety  obtained  from  Nutgall;  chemically  Digallic 
Acid,  as  it  is  changed  into  gallic  acid  through  chemical  reaction  in- 
duced by  heat  and  moisture.  Prepared  from  powdered  Nutgall  by 
maceration  with  Water  and  extraction  with  Ether. 

A  light  yellowish,  amorphous,  coarse  powder  or  in  spongy  masses,  nearly 
odorless  and  of  strongly  astringent  taste.  Soluble  in  i  part  of  water,  in  06  part 
of  alcohol,  in  i  part  of  glycerin  with  heal,  freely  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol, 
almost  insoluble  in  absolute  ether,  benzol,  benzin  or  chloroform.  It  produces 
a  bluish-black  color  with  ferric  chloride  and  the  addition  of  a  little  lime  water 
to  a  one-per-cent  solution  of  it  produces  a  bluish-white  flocculent  pr-ecipitati. 
becoming  more  copious  and  deeper  blue,  finally  acquiring  a  pinkish  tint,  upon 
excess  of  the  lime  water  (distinction  from  Gallic  Acid). 

It  precipitates  gelatin  and  the  alkaloids,  is  incompatible  with  me- 
tallic salts  and  forms  explosive  compounds  with  Potassium  Chlorate,  etc. 


288  GALLIC   ACID. 

In  moist  condition  or  in  solution  it  must  not  be  brought  in  contact 
with  iron  vessels  or  spatulas. 

Off.  Prep. — Collodium  Stypticum;  Glyceritum,  Trochisci,  Unguen- 
tum  Acidi  Tannici. 

Gallic  Acid.— HC7H6O5+H2O.—  Acidum  Gallicum,  U.  S. Ob- 
tained by  exposing  powdered  Nutgall  for  a  considerable  time  to  the 
action  of  moist  warm  Air,  and  extracting  the  mass  with  hot  Water.  The 
gallotannic  acid  having  the  nature  of  a  glucoside  is  slowly  changed 
into  gallic  acid  through  the  fermentation  which  sets  in  at  a  slightly 
elevated  temperature.  The  latter  is  extracted  from  the  pasty  mass  by 
means  of  hot  water,  which  deposits  crystals  of  the  acid  on  cooling. 
Care  must  be  observed  not  to  bring  the  crystals  in  contact  with  iron 
during  the  process,  otherwise  discoloration  will  take  place. 

Whitish  or  fawn-colored  silky  needles,  which  are  without  odor  and  have  a 
slightly  astringent  taste,  soluble  in  100  parts  of  cold  and  three  parts  of  boiling 
water,  in  5  parts  of  alcohol,  in  T2  parts  of  glycerin  and  40  parts  of  ether;  very 
slightly  soluble  in  chloroform,  benzol  or  benzin.  It  produces  a  bluish-black 
precipitate  with  ferric  salts. 

It  differs  from  tannic  acid  in  not  being  precipitated  bv  a  solution 
of  Gelatin  except  in  the  presence  of  gum,  in  not  precipitating  Alka- 
loids and  in  that  it  does  not  color  solutions  of  pure  ferrous  salts. 

The  only  preparation  is:  Unguentum  Acidi  Gallici,  10%,  U.  S. 
Ph.,  '80. 

Pyrogallol.—  C6H3(OH).,.—  Pyrogallol,  U.  S.— Acidum  Pyrogalli- 
cum  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80. — A  triatomic  P.ienol  obtained  chiefly  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  Gallic  Acid.  It  should  be  kept  in  dark  amber-colored 
bottles. 

Light,  white  laminae  or  needles,  acquiring  a  gray  tint  on  exposure  to  air 
and  light,  soluble  in  1.7  parts  of  water,  in  i  part  of  alcohol  and  in  1.2  parts  of 
ether. 

Uses. — Rarely  in  medicine;  extremely  poisonous.     Chiefly  in  Photography 


Astringent  Drugs,  Group  VI. 

This  group  includes  drugs  that  are  used  in  medicine  mainly  fol 
their  astringent  properties.  These  properties  are  chiefly  due  to  the 
presence  of  tannic  or  gallic  acid,  or  both. 

The  astringent  principles  are  often  associated  with  mucilage,  and 
many  of  them  are  therefore  both  demulcent  and  astringent  in  their 
properties. 

Some  of  the  drugs  referred  to  in  this  group  as  Wild  Cherry  are 
usually  classed  as  astringent,  but  as  they  contain  other  active  constitu- 
ents not  astringent  it  was  deemed  best  to  treat  of  them  as  indicated. 

Of  Hamamelis  and  Haematoxylon  it  may  be  said  that  the  acids  to 
which  their  astringency  is  clue,  differ  quite  considerably  from  the 
tannic  and  gallic  acids. 

In  their  extraction  rather  strongly  alcoholic  menstrua  containing  Glycerin 
have  been  found  the  most  effective  and  to  prevent  precipitation  in  the  prepara- 
tions. 

Castanea. — Castanea,  U.  S. — Chestnut.  Leaves  of  Castanea 
dentata,  Sudworth.  Nat.  Ord.,  Cupuliferaj.  Should  be  collected  in 
autumn  while  still  green.  Constituents:  Tannin  nine  per  cent,  muci- 
lage, extractive  and  a  little  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extraction  Castaneai 
Fluidum. 

Uses. — Infusion,  one  ounce  to  the  pint,  as  a  remedy  for  whooping  cough. 

Catechu. — Catechu,  U.  S. — Extract  obtained  from  wood  of  Acacia 
Catechu,  Willd.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Leguminosai. 

The  principal  constituents  are: 

Catechutanmc^acid,  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  soluble  in  cold  \vater,  giving  an 
olive  bro-uin  coloration  with  ferric  salts. 

Catechin,  from  15  to  30  per  cent,  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol,  but  slightly  in 
water;  produces  a  green  color  with  ferric  salts.  It  yields  Pyrocatechin  upon 
dry  distillation. 

Protocatech-uic  acid  is  formed  by  the  action  of  potassa  upon  catechu  and 
similar  resinous  tannins. 

Uses. — In  Compound  Powders  and  as  a  Dye-Stuff.  Pale  catechu  or  Gambir 
is  mostly  used  as  a  dye. 

Off.  Prep. — Tinctura  Catechu  comp.;  Trochisci  Catechu. 
Cherry,    Wild.  —  (See  Group  7.; 

Geranium. — Geranium,  U.  S. — Cranesbill.  Rhizome  of  Geranium 
maculatum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Geraniaceie-  Constituents:  Tan 

*8g 


290  ASTRINGENT 

nin  fifteen  per  cent.  Off.  Prep. :  Extractum  Geranii  Fluidum  and 
an  unofficial  Infusion. 

Hamatoxylon. — Haematoxylon,  U.  S. — Logwood.  Heartwood  of 
Haematoxylon  Campechianum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Leguminosae. 
Constituents:  Haematoxylin,  tannin  and  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Ex- 
tractum Haematoxyli. 

Uses.  —  As  an  addition  to  astringent  mixtures,  but  chiefly  for  dyeing  and  in 
the  preparation  of  Inks. 

Kino. — Kino,  U.  S. — Inspissated  juice  of  Pterocarpus  Marsupium, 
Roxburgh.  Nat.  Ord.,  Leguminosae.  Constituents:  Kino-tannic 
acid,  Kino-red  and  pectin.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Kino. 

Uses. — The  Tincture  is  liable  to  gelatinization,  which  is  best  prevented  by 
the  use  of  strong  alcohol  as  a  menstruum. 

Krameria. — Krameria,  U.  S. — Rhatany. — Root  of  Krameria  tri- 
andra,  Ruiz  and  Pavon,  and  K.  Ixina,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Polygalese. 
Constituents:  Kramero-tannic  acid  about  ten  per  cent,  resembles  cate- 
chin  in  imparting  a  green  color  to  ferric  salts  and  in  forming  pyro- 
catechin  by  dry  distillation;  and  red  coloring  matter. 

Off.  Prep.  — Extractum  Kramerise;  Extractum  Krameriae  Fluidum; 
Tinctura  Krameriae. 

Nutgall.  —  Galla,  U.  S. — Excrescence  on  Quercus  lusitanica, 
Lamarck,  Nat.  Ord.,  Cupuliferae,  caused  by  puncture  and  deposited 
ova  of  Cynips  Gallse  tinctoriae,  Olivier.  Nat.  Ord.,  Hymenoptera  of 
the  class  Insecta.  Constituents:  Tannic  acid  about  sixty  per  cent, 
and  gallic  acid  two  or  three  per  cent. 

Off.  Prep. — Tinctura  Gallae;  Unguentum  Gallae. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  Tannic  and  Gallic  acids  and  Inks. 

Hamamelis. —  (See  Group  4.) 

Matico. — (See  Group  4.) 

White  Oak.—  Quercus  alba,  U.  S. — Bark  of  Quercus  alba,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Cupuliferae.  Constituents:  Tannin  or  quercitannic  acid 
six  to  eleven  per  cent,  producing  a  blue-black  coloration  with  ferric 
salts,  but  not  identical  with  gallotannic  acid;  resin  and  coloring  mat- 
ter. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  tanning  leather. 

Pomegranate.  —  (See  Group  7.) 

Rubus. — Rubus,  U.  S. — Blackberry.  Bark  of  root  of  Rubus  vil- 
losus,  Aiton.  R.  Canadensis,  Linne,  and  R.  trivialis,  Michaux.  Nat. 
Ord. ,  Rosaceae.  Constituents:  Tannin  ten  per  cent. 

Off.  Prep. — Extractum  Rubi  Fluidum,  Syrupus  Rubi. 


DRUGS. 


291 


Uses. — As  Decoction  and  Infusion.  From  the  fermented  juice  of  the  berry, 
Blackberry  Wine  and  Brandy,  useful  in  summer  complaints. 

Rumex. — Rumex,  U.  S. — Yellow  dock.  Root  of  Rumex  crispus, 
Linne  and  other  species  of  Rumex.  Nat.  Ord.,  Polygonacese.  Con- 
stituents: Tannin,  chrysophan,  chrysophanic  acid,  mucilage.  Off. 
Prep.:  Extractum  Rumicis  Fluidum. 

Uses. — Decoction,  one  ounce  to  the  pint,  also  in  Compound  Syrup  of  Stil- 
lingia  and  various  preparations  of  the  American  Dispensatory. 

UNOFFICIAL    ASTRINGENT    DRUGS — GROUP    SIX. 


COM.  NAME. 

Box.  NAME. 

PART 
USED. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Agrimonia 

A.  eupatoria. 

Herb. 

Tannin  5$. 

Alder. 

Alnus  serrulata. 

Bark. 

Tannin  4%  . 

Areca. 

A.  catechu. 

Seed. 

Tannin  15%,  fixed  oil 

Avens. 

Geum  rivale. 

R'zome. 

Tannin,  bitter  prin 

Bistort. 

Polygonum  bistorta. 

R'zome. 

Tannin,  etc. 

Comfrey 

Symphytum  officinale. 

Root. 

Mucilage,  tannin. 

Diospyros,      (Per- 

D. Virginiana. 

Fruit  and 

Tannin,  sugar,  etc 

simmon). 

Bark. 

Hepatica. 

H.  triloba,  H.  acutiloba. 

Herb. 

Tannin,  mucilage. 

Heuchera, 

H.  Americana. 

Root 

Tannin  10%  • 

(Alumroot). 

Oenotheria, 

O.  biennis. 

Herb 

Tannin,  mucilage. 

(Evening  P'mrose) 

Plantain 

Plantago  lanceolata.   Plan- 

Herb 

Tannin,  bitter  prin. 

tago  major. 

Prinos          (Black 

P.  verticillatus. 

Bark 

Tann.,  resin,  bit.  prin. 

Alder). 

Pulmonaria. 

P.  officinalis. 

Herb. 

Tann.,  mucilage,  resin. 

Spiraea.       (Hard- 

S.  tomentosa. 

Flor.  tops 

Tannin,  bitter  prin. 

hack). 

Statice. 

S.    limonium   var.   Caroli- 

Root. 

Tannin,  mucilage. 

nianum. 

Sumach. 

Rhus  glabra. 

Bark. 

Tannin,  resin. 

Tor  men  til. 

Potentilla  tormentilla, 

R'zome. 

Tannin  .  kinovic  acid. 

Glucosidal  Drugs,  Group  VII. 

This  group  includes  drugs  whose  virtues  depend  largely  or  wholly 
on  the  presence  of  glucosides  and  neutral  Principles,  or  on  peculiar 
organic  Acids. 

Some  drugs  are  included  under  this  head  whose  active  principles 
have  not  yet  been  isolated,  when  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  such 
active  principles  are  present  in  the  drug. 

Among  the  drugs  included  in  the  Glucosidal  Group  are  a  few  which 
possess  very  peculiar  characteristics,  and  are  classed  by  some  authors 
as  reactionary  drugs. 

These  contain  two  or  more  complex  principles,  one  being  an  albu- 
minous ferment,  coagulable  and  destroyed  by  heat,  but  rendered  active 
in  the  presence  of  water;  the  other,  a  still  more  complex  principle, 
possessing  glucosidal  or  feebly  alkaloidal  properties,  and  decomposed 
by  the  action  of  the  ferment,  in  the  presence  of  water,  into  various 
compounds,  frequently  volatile,  and  quite  active  medicinally. 

Definition. — The  term  ghicoside  is  applied  to  those  organic  princi- 
ples which  are  readily  resolvable  into  glucose  and  another  organic 
principle,  either  by  the  action  of  mineral  Acids,  of  Alkalies,  or  of 
Ferments. 

They  are  nearly  all  ternary  compounds,  that   is,  composed  of  Car- 
bon, Hydrogen  and  Oxygen,  while  one  is  quaternary  or  nitrogenizedt 
vi/..:  Amygdalin,  C20H27NOU  and  two  are  sulphuretedQi  complex,  viz. 
Sinalbin,  C30HMN2S8Oie,  and  Sinigrin,  C10H18NS,KO10. 

They  possess  either  neutral  or  acid  properties,  and  occasionally 
form  salts  or  crystalline  compounds;  some  few  are  soluble  in  water.  bu: 
the  greater  number  are  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  though  readily  solu- 
ble in  alcohol. 

The  English  ending  in,  Latin  inum,  has  been  officially  adopted  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  alkaloids  ending  in  ine,  Latin  ina. 

Some  of  the  peculiar  Organic  Acids  found  in  drugs  might  be  classed  as  Gluco- 
sides,  and  are  so  classed  by  some  authorities,  because  they  are  separable  into 
glucose  and  another  organic  principle,  and  they  are  treated  of  here  in  that  con- 
nection. The  Neutral  Principles  are  also  included  in  this  group,  because  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  organic  principles  it  is  very  difficult  to 
distinguish  between  these  exceedingly  complex  substances. 


NEUTRAL   PRINCIPLES  293 

THE  NEUTRAL  PRINCIPLES. 

A  number  of  solid  crystalline  substances  obtained  from  plants  are 
termed  neutral pritu  fi/es,  as  they  are  either  neutral  or  feebly  acid  and 
form  salts,  if  at  all,  with  alkalies. 

They  are  composed  of  Carbon,  Hvdrogen  and  Oxygen,  are  mostly 
insoluble  in  water,  freely  soluble  in  alcohol  and  either  insoluble  or 
slightly  soluble  in  ether  or  chloroform. 

They  differ  from  Glucosides  in  not  being  resolvable  into  glucose  and  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Alkaloids  in  that  they  are  not  precipitated  by  tannic  acid, 
mercuric  potassium  iodide  or  other  alkaloid  reagents.  They  are  sometimes 
called  "Bitter  principles"  because  the  bitter  tasN-  of  the  Drugs  that  furnish 
them  is  chiefly  due  to  their  presence.  Medicinally  they  are  the  most 
active  constituents  of  their  respective  drugs  and  many  of  them  produce  toxic 
effects  to  such  a  degree  that  they  are  classed  with  thc/>oisons 

The  following  arc  official: 

Aloin. — Alomum,  U.  S. — -Obtained  from  several  varieties  of  Aloes, 
chiefly  Barbadoes  Aloes,  barbaloin  and  Socotra,  or  Zanzibar,  socaloin. 
They  differ  more  or  less  in  chemical  composition  and  physical  proper- 
ties according  to  the  source  from  which  derived.  Prepared  by  ex- 
tracting the  Aloes  with  acidulated  boiling  water,  concentration  and 
crystallization  from  warm  dilute  Alcohol. 

Minute  acicular  crystals,  or  crystalline  powder  of  yellowish  color,  soluble  in 
60  parts  of  water,  from  20  to  30  parts  of  alcohol,  sparingly  in  ether. 

Uses. — As  an  ingredient  in  Pills,  dose  from  0.05  to  o. i,  usually  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  cathartics. 

Elatcrin. — C,0H.,SO.. — Elaterinum,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  Elateri- 
um,  a  substance  deposited  by  the  juice  of  the  fruit  of  Ecballium 
Elaterium,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Cucurbitaceie. 

Minute,  white  scales  or  prismatic  crystals,  sparingly  soluble  in  ordinary  sol- 
vents, but  soluble  in  2.4  parts  of  chloroform 

I'scs.  -In  the  official  Trituration  10^  .  a  more  uniform  and  reliable  prepara- 
tion than  the  crude  drug,  the  so-called  Clutterbuck's  elaterium.  Dose  of  the 
Trituration  0.5  dcg 

Picrotoxin. — ^  .^^-'i^ir —  Picrotoxinum,  I".  S. — Obtained  from  tin- 
seed  of  Anamirta  paniculata,  Colebrooke.  Nat.  Ord.,  Mcnisper- 
macese — "Cocculus  Indicus. 

Colorless,    shining    prismatic   crystals    or  crystalline  powder,  having   an   in- 
tense bitter  taste,  soluble  in  240  parts  of  water,  in  9  parts  of  alcohol;  also  solu 
ble  in  the  acids  and  alkalies,  slightly  soluble  in  ether  or  chloroform. 

f'si-s. — Tn  the  form  of  pills  or  granules,  dose  i  mg. 

Piperin. — CrH]flNO,,. — Piperinum.  V.  S. — Obtained  from  Pepper 
and  from  other  plants  of  the  Nat.  Ord.;  Piperaceae.  Classed  with  the 


294  NEUTRAL   PRINCIPLES. 

Alkaloids.     Prepared  by  extraction  with  Alcohol  or  Ether  and  separa- 
tion from  the  Oleoresin. 

Pale  yellowish,  prismatic  crystals,  of  a  peppery  taste,  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  30  parts  of  alcohol. 

Uses. — As  an  addition  to  antiperiodics  in  pills. 

Salicin.  —  C13H18O?. — Salicinum,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  several 
species  of  Salix  and  Populus  (Nat.  Ord.,  Salicaceas,)  by  digestion 
with  Lead  Oxide  and  extraction  with  water  and  purified  by  filtration 
through  charcoal. 

White,  silky  needles  or  crystalline  powder,  soluble  in  28  parts  of  water,  in 
jo  parts  of  alcohol,  almost  insoluble  in  ether  or  chloroform.  It  is  colored  violet 
by  ferric  chloride  and  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  with  a  red  color. 

Salicin  is  a  true  glucosidc,  being  decomposed  by  a  ferment,  such  as  emulsin 
or  saliva  into  saligenin,  C7HhO2  and  glucose,  C6H12O6. 

Uses. — As  a  remedy  in  Rheumatism  in  doses  from  o.  5  to  i.o. 

Santonin. — C15HlgO3. — Santoninum,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  Santo- 
nica,  Levant  Wormseed,  by  boiling  with  Milk  of  Lime  and  decom- 
posing the  Calcium  Santoninate  formed  with  Hydrochloric  Acid.  The 
Santonin  is  dissolved  in  hot  Alcohol,  filtered  through  charcoal  and 
crystallized. 

Colorless,  flattened,  prismatic  crystals,  odorless,  nearly  tasteless  but  de- 
veloping a  bitter  taste,  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  40  parts  alcohol, 
in  4  parts  chloroform,  in  140  parts  of  ether  and  soluble  in  caustic  alkalies. 
It  is  not  affected  by  exposure  to  the  air  but  turns  yellow  exposed  to  light  and 
must  be  kept  in  amber-colored  vials,  or  in  a  dark  place. 

Uses. — In  the  official  Troches,  Trochisci  Santonini,  containing  3  eg.  in  each. 
Alkalies  impair  the  effect  of  Santonin,  hence  the  Sodium  Santoninate  and  the 
Troches  of  this,  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  '80,  have  been  discarded.  The  dose  for 
children  should  not  exceed  i  dcg.  and  should  be  followed  by  a  purgative. 

Chrysarobin. — Chrysarobinum  U.  S. — A  neutral  principle,  in  its 
commercial,  more  or  less  impure  form,  extracted  from  Goa  Powder,  a 
substance  found  deposited  in  the  wood  of  Andira  Araroba.  Unguen- 
tnm  Chrysarobini  $%. 

A  pale  orange-yellow  powder,  darkening  on  exposure  to  the  air,  almost  insol- 
uble in  water  or  alcohol,  soluble  in  150  parts  boiling  alcohol  with  a  sligM 
residue;  readily  soluble  in  boiling  benzol  and  in  solutions  of  alkalies 

Uses. — Externally  only  in  Skin  diseases,  Ringworm,  etc. 


REACTIONARY   DRUGS.  295 

REACTIONARY    DRUGS. 

The  following  Reactionary  Drugs  are  official: 

Bitter  Almond. — Amygdala  amara,  U.  S. — Seed  of  Prunus  Amyg- 
dalus  var.  amara,  De  Candollc.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rosaceae.  Constituents: 
Fixed  oil  about  45  percent,  amygdalin,  emulsin,  mucilage,  sugar,  etc. 
Off.  Prep.:  Syrupus  Amygdalae. 

When  bitter  almonds  are  brought  into  contact  with  water,  the  ferment  fnntf- 
sin  decomposes  the  glucoside  amygdalin  into  Hydrocyanic  Acid,  Oil  of  Bitter 
Almond  and  sugar. 

Uses. — Chiefly  for  preparing  oil  of  bitter  almond. 

Wild  Cherry. — Prunus  Virginiana,  U.  S. — Bark  of  Prunus  serotina. 
Erhart.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rosaceae.  Constituents:  Bitter  principle,  tannin, 
amygdalin  and  emulsin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Pruni  Virginiana 
Fluidum;  Infusum  Pruni  Virginiana:;  Syrupus  Pruni  Virginianae. 

Wild  cherry  bark  should  be  collected  in  the  month  of  October,  as  it  then 
yields  the  greatest  proportion  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid:  the  thick,  corky  layer 
frequently  found  on  old  bark  should  be  removed.  When  treated  with  water 
Hydrocyanic  Acid  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  emulsin  upon  amygdalin, 
similarly  to  the  reaction  of  these  principles  in  bitter  almonds.  Since  the 
power  of  the  ferment  is  destroyed  by  heat  and  the  products  are  volatile  the  ex- 
traction must  be  effected  in  the  cold  and  the  vessel  should  be  of  glass  and 
tightly  covered. 

Black  Mustard. — Sinapis  Nigra,  U.  S. — Seed  of  Brassica  nigra, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Cruciferae.  Constituents:  Fixed  oil  25  percent, 
myrosin,  sinigrin,  giving  rise  to  volatile  oil.  Off.  Prep.:  Charta  Sinapis. 

Uses. — In  coarse  powder,  or  ground,  for  the  preparation  of  Cataplasm, 
mixed  with  cold  water.  Black  mustard  is  more  irritant  than  the.  White,  and  is 
therefore  frequently  mixed  with  the  latter  when  used  to  produce  blister.  Mus 
tard  seed  oil  is  obtained  by  expression  between  hot  plates  of  iron. 

Whiff  Mustard.  —  Sinapis  Alba,  U.  S. — Seed  of  Brassica  alba. 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Cruciferae.  Constituents:  Fixed  oil  20  to  2o 
per  cent:  sinalbin  and  myrosin  giving  rise  to  volatile  oil. 

Uses. — Similar  to  those  of  Black  Mustard. 

Both  black  and  white  mustard  contain  a  ferment  mvrosin,  and  each  a  gluco- 
side  termed  respectively  sinigrin  and  sinalbin.  Tn  the  presence  of  water  these 
substances  are  decomposed  by  the  myrosin,  forming  volatile  compounds,  to 
which  the  acrid  taste  and  irritant  action  of  both  kinds  of  mustards  are  due. 

In  Black  Mustard  the  Sinigrin  is  by  this  reaction  transformed  into  Sulpho- 
cyanide  of  Allyl  or  Volatile  Oil  of  Mustard,  an  exceedingly  irritating  and. 
when  taken  internally,  poisonous  substance;  some  acid  potassium  sulphate  and 
sugar  are  also  formed. 

In  White  Mustard  the  Sinalbin,  also  termed  Sulphocyanide  of  Sinapin,  is  de- 
composed by  the  action  of  myrosin,  in  the  presence  of  water,  into  Sulphate  of 
Sinapin  and  Sulphocyanide  of  Acrinyl,  a  thick,  non-volatile  oil,  possessing 
vesicating  properties.  The  base  of  the  other  compound,  Sinapin.  is  an  alkaloid. 


xf,  GLUCOSIDAL 

GLUCOSIDAL  DRUGS. 

Aloes. — The  inspissated  juice  of  leaves  of  several  species  of  Aloes. 
Nat.  Ord. ,  Liliaceae.  Constituents:  Aloin,  resin,  vol.  oil  (small 
quantity).  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Aloes  Aquosum;  Extractum  Colo- 
cynthidiscomp.;  Pilulae  Aloes;  Pil.  Aloes  et  Asafcetidae;  Pil.  Aloes  et 
Ferri;  Pil.  Aloes  et  Mastiches;  Pil.  Aloes  et  Myrrhae;  Pil.  Rheicomp. ; 
Tinctura  Aloes;  Tinct.  Aloes  et  Myrrhae;  Tinctura  Benzoin!  comp. 

Aloe  Barbadensis,  U.  S. — From  Aloe  vera,  Linne. 

Aloe  Socotrina,  U.  S. — From  Aloe  Perryi,  Baker. 

Aloe  Purificata,  U.  S. — Prepared  from  Socotrin  Aloes  by  fusing  it 
on  a  water-bath,  keeping  it  in  a  liquid  form  by  the  addition  of  Alco- 
hol, whilst  straining  it  and  evaporating  it  until  hard  and  brittle. 

Of  the  three  different  kinds  of  Aloes  occurring  in  commerce,  viz.:  Barba- 
does,  Cape  and  Socotrin  or  Zanzibar.  Socotrin  aloes  is  regarded  as  containing 
the  greatest  proportion  of  active  principle — aloin — and  as  being  less  harsh  in 
its  action  than  the  other  varieties. 

Uses. — Chiefly  as  Purified  Aloes.  It  yields  a  light  golden-yellow  powder, 
and  is  an  ingredient  in  many  unofficial  pills,  etc.,  and  in  Comp.  Powder  of 
Aloes  and  Canella,  "Hiera  Picra,"  formerly  official,  prepared  as  follows:  Aloes, 
Soc.,  four  parts;  Canella,  one  part;  both  in  fine  powder  and  thoroughly  mixed. 

Apocynum. — Apocynum,  U.  S. — Canadian  Hemp.  Root  of  Apocy- 
num  Cannabinum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Apocynaceae.  Constituents: 
Apocynin,  apocynein,  tannin, 'bitter  extractive.  Off.  Prep.:  Extrac- 
tum Apocyni  Fluidum. 

Uses. — In  preparing  Apocynin,  a  resinoid,  the  preparation  of  which  has  not 
been  published. 

Araroba. — Goa  Powder. — Powder  obtained  from  cavities  in  trunk 
of  Andira  Araroba,  Aguiar.  Nat.  Ord.,  Leguminosae.  Constituents: 
Resin,  gum,  chrysarobin. 

Uses. — As  a  source  of  Chrysarobin,  of  which  it  contains  about  eighty  per  cent, 
and  in  Ointments. 

Bryonia. — Bryonia,  U.  S. — Bryony.  Root  of  Bryonia  alba  and  B. 
dioica,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Cucurbitaceae.  Constituents:  Bryonin 
(glucoside).  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Bryoniae. 

Uses. — Chiefly  as  homreopathic  Tincture.  A  Fluid  Extract  is  made  with 
alcohol  of  85  per  cent. 

Calendula. — Calendula.  I*.  S.  Marigold,  the  florets  of  Calendula 
officinalis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositor.  Constituents:  Vol.  oil 
(trace),  calendulin,  bitter  principle.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Calendulae. 

Uses. — Chiefly  as  a  substitute  for  Arnica  in  the  form  of  Tincture  and  Infusion, 
as  an  application  for  sprains  and  bruises 


DRUGS.  *97 

Galwnba. — Calumba,  U.  S. — Columbo.  Root  of  Jateorrhiza  pal- 
mata,  Miers.  Nat.  Ord.;  Menispermaceae.  Constituents:  Columbin, 
berberine,  columbic  acid.  Off.  Prep. :  Extractum  Calumbae  Fluidum; 
Tinctura  Calumbae. 

Uses. — As  Infusion,  and  in  powder  associated  with  other  tonics. 

Cascarilla. — (See  Group  3.) 

Caulophyllum. — (See  Group  4.) 

Cctraria.—(See  Group  1.) 

Dulcamara.  —Dulcamara,  U.  S.  —  Bitter-sweet.  Young  branches 
of  Solarium  dulcamara,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanacese.  Constituents: 
Resin,  dulcamarin  (glucoside),  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Dul- 
camaras Fluidum. 

Uses. — As  Infusion  and  Decoction. 

Capsicum. — Capsicum,  U.  S. — Cayenne  Pepper.  Fruit  of  Capsi- 
cum fastigiatum,  Blume.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanaceae.  Constituents:  Vola- 
tile oil,  capsaicin,  resin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum Capsici  Fluidum: 
Oleoresina  Capsici;  Tinctura  Capsici. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  the  powdered  form  as  a  condiment;  also  as  a  rubefacient  ia 
Liniments  and  Plasters 

Chimaphila  — Chimaphila,  U.  S. — Pipsissewa,  Leaves  of  Chima- 
phila  umbellata,  Nuttall.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ericaceae.  Constituents:  Chima- 
philin,  arbutin,  ericolin.  urson,  tannin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Chimaphilae  Fluidum. 

Uses. — As  Infusion  and  as  an  ingredient  in  Syrup  Stillingia  Comp.  Am.  Disp. 

Chirata. — Chirata,  U.  S. — Entire  plant  of  Swertia  Chirata,  Hamil- 
ton. Nat.  Ord.,  Gentianeae.  Constituents:  Chiratin  (glucoside)  and 
ophelic  acid.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Chiratae  Fluidum;  Tinctura 
Chiratae. 

Uses. — Sometimes  as  Infusion,  now  seldom  used,  being  superseded  by  gentian 
and  other  less  costly  bitters. 

Cloves. — (See  Group  3.) 

Colocynth. — Colocynthis,  U.  S. — Fruit  of  Citrullus  Colocynthis, 
Schrader.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Cucurbitaceae.  Constituents:  Colocynthin, 
resin,  fixed  oil,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Colocynthidis;  Extractum 
Colocynthidis  comp. 

Uses. — Chiefly  for  the  preparation  of  the  Extract,  and  in  powdered  form  in 
combination  with  less  drastic  purgatives.  The  fruit  should  be  deprived  of  the 
seeds  previous  tc  use,  because  they  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  fixed  oil 
which  is  undesi-rable  in  the  preparations.  The  percentage  yield  of  extract 
varies  considerably,  but  averages  about  17  per  cent. 

Cubeb. — (See  Group  3.) 


*98  GLUCOSIDAL 

Convallaria. — Convallaria,  U.  S.— Lily  of  the  Valley,  the  Rootlets 
and  Rhizome  of  Convallaria  majalis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Liliaceae. 
Constituents:  Convallarin  and  convallamarin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Convallariae  Fluidum. 

Uses. — As  a  substitute  for  Digitalis  in  heart  diseases. 

Corn  Silk. — Zea,  U.  S. — Styles  and  Stigmas  of  Zea  Mays,  Linne, 
"Indian  Corn."  Nat.  Ord.,  Gramineae.  Constituents:  Maizenic 
acid,  tannin,  resin,  fixed  oil  and  sugar.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Zeae 
Fluidum,  made  by  the  same  process  as  Fl.  Extract  of  Triticum. 

Uses. — As  Infusion  or  Decoction. 

Digitalis. — Digitalis,  U.  S. — Foxglove.  Leaves  of  Digitalis  pur- 
purea,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Scrophularineae.  Constituents:  Digitalin, 
digitoxin  and  resin.  Off.  Prep.,  Extractum  Digitalis;  Extractum 
Digitalis  Fluidum;  Infusum  Digitalis;  Tinctura  Digitalis. 

The  so-called  "Digitalin"  of  commerce  is  a  mixture  of  the  various  active  prin- 
ciples, and  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  pure  active  principle,  the  Digi- 
taline,  which  possesses  much  greater  strength. 

Ergot. — Ergota,  U.  S  — Ergot  of  Rye.  Sclerotium  of  Claviceps 
purpurea,  Tulasne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Pyrenomycetes  of  the  class  Carpos- 
porae,  a  fungus  replacing  the  grain  of  common  Rye,  Secale  c^reale, 
Linne.  Constituents:  Sclerotic  acid,  scleromucin,  sclererythrin,  fixed 
oil,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Ergotae;  Extractum  Ergotae  Fluidum; 
Vinum  Ergotae. 

Ergot  should  be  kept  in  a  close  vessel  and  protected  against  insects 
by  adding  to  it  a  little  chloroform.  When  over  one  year  old  Ergot 
should  be  rejected. 

Some  doubt  yet  exists  as  to  what  the  medicinally  valuable  principles 
of  Ergot  really  are.  The  fact  is  conceded,  however,  that  whether 
they  be  glucosidal,  alkaloidal,  or  both,  or  whether  it  owes  its  value  to 
a  peculiar  acid,  the  desirable  principles  are  more  soluble  in  water  than 
in  alcohol,  and  that,  therefore,  preparations  made  with  aqueous  men- 
strua are  preferable  to  those  with  alcoholic  menstrua. 

Ergot  contains  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  per  cent  of  a  non-drying  fixed 
oil  more  soluble  in  strongly  alcoholic  menstrua  than  in  those  more  aqueous; 
and  since  this  oil  is  very  undesirable,  its  presence  in  the  preparations  is  best 
avoided  through  the  use  of  diluted  alcohol  (or  still  weaker.  40  per  cent)  for  ex- 
hausting the  drug. 

L'scs.  —  "Ergotin,"  a  misnomer  for  extracts  supposed  to  represent  the  medi- 
cinal value  of  the  drug.  They  vary  in  composition  according  to  the  process 
employed  in  their  preparation,  and  may  contain  the  principles  soluble  ia 
alcohol  only  (Wigger's);  those  soluble  in  weaker  (seventy-five  per  cent)  alcohol 


DRUGS.  299 

(Bunjeau's);  or  those  soluble  in  twenty  per  cent  alcohol,  the  fixed  oil  having 
been  removed  (Hallberg  in  Am.  Jour.  Pbarm.,  1882) 

The  official  Extract  prepared  by  evaporating  the  fluid  extract  to  about  one- 
fifth  of  its  volume  is  a  more  reliable  preparation  than  the  two  first  mentioned, 
although  objectionable,  owing  to  the  fixed  oil  it  contains,  when  dispensed  in 
Pills.  The  extract,  freed  from  oil,  is  best  adapted  to  the  pill-form. 

Powdered  Ergot  quickly  becomes  rancid  and  thus  unfit  for  use,  which  may 
be  prevented  by  depriving  the  Ergot  of  its  fixed  oil  with  ether  or  petroleum- 
benzin.  (See  Pulv.  Ergotae  purificat.,  Ph.  Ger.,  or  National  Dispensatory.) 

Euonymus. — Euonymus,  U.  S. — Wahoo.  Bark  of  the  Root  of  Eu- 
onymus  atropurpureus,  Jacquin.  Nat.  Ord.,  Celastrineae.  Constitu- 
ents: Eunonymin,  resin,  asparagin,  etc.  Off.  Prep. :  Extractum  Eu- 
nonymi. 

Uses. — Euonymin,  a  resinoid  prepared  by  precipitating  the  alcoholic  tinc- 
ture in  water;  it  is  unreliable,  and  the  Extract  may  be  substituted  for  it  with 
advantage. 

Eupatorium. — Eupatorium,  U.  S. — Boneset.  Leaves  and  flower- 
ing tops  of  Eupatorium  perfoliatum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae. 
Constituents:  Eupatorin  (glucoside),  volatile  oil,  resin.  Off.  Prep.: 
Extractum  Eupatorii  Fluidum;  and  Infusion  unofficial. 

Frangula. — (See  Group  4.) 

Guarana. — (See  Group  8.) 

Glycyrrhiza.  —  Glycyrrhiza,  U.  S.  —  Licorice  Root.  Root  of 
Glycyrrhiza  glabra,  Linne,  and  of  the  variety  glandulifera,  Regel  et 
Herder.  Nat.  Ord.,  Leguminosae.  Constituents:  Glycyrrhizin, 
glycyramarin,  sugar,  asparagin  and  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Glycyrrhizse  Fluidum;  Extractum  Glycyrrhizae  Purum;  Glycyrrhizi- 
num  Ammoniatum,  Pulvis  Glycyrrhizae  comp. ;  Extractum  Sarsa- 
parillae  comp.;  Syrupus  Sarsaparillae  comp.;  Tinctura  Rhei  dulcis. 

Uses. — The  pure  Extract,  prepared  by  exhausting  the  root  with  ammoniated 
water  and  evaporating  to  the  consistence  of  a  soft  extract,  is  entirely  soluble  in 
water,  and  therefore  superior  to  the  commercial  extract  of  licorice,  in  the  prep- 
aration of  Brown  Mixture  (Mistura  Glycyrrhizae  comp.).  It  should  be  mixed 
with  10  per  cent  of  Glycerin  to  preserve  it.  A  Syrup  and  Elixir  are  also  pre- 
pared from  it.  (See  National  Formulary.) 

Glycyrrhizinum  Ammoniatum — "Glycyrrhizin/  U.  S. —  Made  by 
precipitating  the  Ammoniacal  liquid  extract  from  the  Rout  with  Sul- 
phuric Acid  and  dissolving  the  precipitate,  first  carefully  washed,  in 
Ammonia  Water,  then  evaporating  by  a  gentle  heat  until  of  syrupy 
consistence,  spreading  upon  plates  of  glass  to  dry,  and  finally  obtained 
as  scales. 

Extractum  Glycyrrhizce,  U.  S. — The  commercial  extract  or  stick 
Licorice.  Should  contain  not  less  than  60  per  cent  of  matter  soluble 
in  water. 


joo  GLUCOSIDAL 

The  commercial  powdered  Extract  of  Licorice  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
starch  and  other  inert  matter  as  adulterants  to  retain  it  in  the  pulverulent  form. 
The  powdered  root  is  also  frequently  adulterated  or  obtained  from  inferior 
specimens  of  the  root. 

Uses. — Licorice  and  its  various  preparations,  owing  to  their  peculiar  sweet 
taste,  are  largely  employed  as  adjuvants  to  nauseous  mixtures  and  to  disguise  the 
taste  of  bitter  medicines,  as  of  Quinine.  It  is  the  most  effective  ingredient  in 
Compound  Elixir  Taraxacum. 

Juglans. — Juglans,  U.  S. — Butternut.  The  bark  of  root  of  Jug- 
lans  cinerea,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Juglandaceae.  (Should  be  collected 
in  autumn  or  very  early  spring.)  Constituents:  Nucin,  tannin,  fixed 
oil  and  volatile  oil  (trace).  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Juglandis. 

Uses. — Juglandin,  a  resinoid.  prepared  by  the  general  formula  for  this  class; 
the  official  Extract  is  a  more  reliable  and  efficient  preparation. 

Kamala. — (See  Group  4.) 

Leptandra. — Leptranda,  U.  S. — "Culver's  Root."  Rhizome  and 
rootlets  of  Veronica  Virginica,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Scrophularineae. 
Constituents:  Leptandrin,  resin,  saponin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extrac- 
tum Leptandrae;  Extractum  Leptandrae  Fluidum. 

Uses. — "Leptandrin,"  a  resinoid,  prepared  by  precipitating  the  Alcoholic 
Tincture  in  water  and  drying  the  precipitated  Resin.  The  remaining  clear 
liquid  is  boiled  and  Sulphuric  Acid  added  until  it  ceases  to  produce  a  precipi- 
tate, the  clear  liquid  is  rejected,  the  precipitate  washed  to  free  it  from  sulphuric 
acid,  dried,  mixed  with  the  Resin  previously  obtained,  and  powdered,  This 
preparation  represents  all  the  virtues  of  Leptandra. 

Quillaja. — -Quillaja,  U.  S. — Soap  Bark.  Bark  of  Quillaja  Sapon- 
aria,  Molina.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rosaceae.  Constituent:  Saponin,  a  pois- 
onous principle.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Quillajae. 

Uses. — As  a  Detergent  in  cleaning  delicate  fabrics.  Sometimes  used  to  im- 
part the  quality  of  frothing  to  Soda  Water  Syrups  and  also  as  an  Emulsifying 
Agent,  but  its  use  for  these  purposes  is  of  questionable  advantage. 

Quassia. — Quassia,  U.  S. — Wood  of  Picrsena  excelsa,  Lindle> . 
Nat.  Ord.,  Simarubeae.  Constituents:  Quassin,  resin.  Off.  Prep.: 
Extractum  Quassige;  Extractum  Quassias  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Quassiae. 

Uses. — As  an  ingredient  in  Bitters,  and  as  an  Infusion,  often  in  conjunction 
with  other  bitters. 

Phytolacca.  —  (See  Group  4.) 

Rhubarb. — Rheum,  U.  S. — Root  of  Rheum  officinale,  Baillon.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Polygonaceoe.  Constituents:  Chrysophan,  chrysophanic  acid, 
erythroretin,  emodin,  phseoretin,  aporetin,  tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Ex- 
tractum Rhei;  Extractum  Rhei  Fluidum;  Pilulae  Rhei;  Pilulae  Rhei 
compositse;  Pulvis  Rhei  compositus;  Syrupus  Rhei;  Tinctura  Rhei: 
Tinctura  Rhei  Aromatica;  Tinctura  Rhei  Dulcis. 


DRUGS.  301 

Uitj. — In  the  powdered  form  obtained  from  choice  specimens  of  the  root;  the 
powder  of  commerce  being  frequently  prepared  from  decayed  and  otherwise  in- 
ferior roots.  When  Rhubarb  in  small  square  pieces  is  subjected  to  a  heat  of 
about  izo°C.  (roasted),  the  principles  upon  which  its  cathartic  action  depends 
are  modified  or  destroyed,  so  that  it  becomes  astringent  in  its  properties,  "Tor- 
refied Rhubarb." 

Rhus  Toxicodendron. — Rhus  Toxicodendron,  U.  S. — Poison  Ivy  or 
Poison  Oak.  Fresh  leaves  of  Rhus  radicans,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord. , 
Anacardieae.  Constituents:  Toxicodendric  acid,  tannin,  etc. 

Uses. — A  Tincture,  to  be  prepared  from  the  fresh  leaves,  according  to  the 
formula  for  Tincturae  Herbarum  recentium,  U.  S.  Ph. ;  chiefly  used  in  homoeo- 
pathy. 

Rumex. — (See  Group  6.) 

Santonica. — Santonica,  U.  S. — Levant  Wormseed.  Unexpanded 
flower  heads  of  Artemisia  pauciflora,  Weber.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae. 
Constituents:  Santonin  one  and  a  half  to  two  per  cent,  volatile  oil 
one  per  cent. 

Uses. — Wormseed,  covered  with  sugar;  and  in  Decoction  or  Infusion,  as  an- 
thelmintic.  Its  active  principle.  Santonin,  in  the  form  of  Troches,  containing 
Yi  grain  in  each,  is  more  eligible  and  effective.  The  principal  use  of  the  drug 
is  in  the  preparation  of  Santonin,  many  thousand  pounds  being  produced 
annually. 

Sarsaparilla. — Sarsaparilla,  U.  S. — Root  of  Smilax  officinalis. 
Kunth;  S.  medica,  Schlechtendal  and  Chamisso;  S.  papyracea,  Duha- 
mel  and  other  species  of  Smilax.  Nat.  Ord.,  Liliaceae.  Constituents: 
Parillin,  resin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Decoctum  Sarsaparillae  comp. ;  £x- 
tractum  Sarsaparillae  Fluidum  comp.;  Syrupus  Sarsaparillae  comp. 

Four  kinds  of  Sarsaparilla  occur  in  commerce,  viz. :  Honduras,  Rio  Negro, 
Mexican  and  Jamaica.  Of  these,  the  Honduras  variety  is  the  best;  the 
Jamaica  is  the  only  kind  official  in  the  Ph.  Br. ;  by  others  the  Mexican  is  re- 
garded as  superior.  It  is  quite  likely  that  Sarsaparilla,  no  matter  -what  kind, 
possesses  but  little  medicinal  value,  and  is  an  ingredient  of  only  secondary  im- 
portance in  many  of  the  preparations  that  bear  its  name. 

Senega. — Senega,  U.  S.— Root  of  Polygala  Senega,  Linne.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Polygaleae.  Constituents:  Senegin,  polygalin,  or  polygalic  acid, 
fixed  oil.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Senegae  Fluidum;  Syrupus  Scillae 
comp.;  Syrupus  Senegae. 

Senega  is  an  exceedingly  active  drug,  and  care  should  be  used  in  dispensing 
it.  Its  quality  of  frothing  in  aqueous  mixtures  is  owing  to  the  polygalin,  a  sub- 
stance similar  to  saponin. 

Uses. — Infusion  and  as  Extract,  formerly  official,  or  Abstract. 

Senna. — Senna,  U.  S. — Leaflets  of  Cassia  acutifolia,  Delile,  and  C. 
Angustifolia,  Vahl.  Nat.  Ord.,  Leguminosae.  Constituents:  Cathartic 


302 

acid,  sennacrol  (a  bitter  principle),  sennit.  Off.  Prep.:  Confectio 
Sennae;  Extractum  Sennae  Fluidum;  Infusum  Sennae  comp.;  Pulvu 
Glycyrrhizae  comp.;  Syrupus  Sarsaparillae  comp.;  Syrupus  Sennae. 

The  Pharmacopoeia  recognizes  as  Senna  the  leaves  from  two  species  of  Cas- 
sia, of  which  that  from  C.  acutifolia  is  known  in  commerce  as  Alexandria 
Senna,  and  that  from  C  angustifola  as  India  Senna,  two  varieties  of  which  are 
known,  viz.:  Tinnevelly  and  East  India  or  Bombay. 

Alexandria  Senna  is  probably  more  active  than  the  India  Sennas  (Tinnevelly 
and  Bombay)  but  not  presenting  as  fine  an  appearance  as  Tinnevelly,  the  latter 
is  usually  preferred. 

Uses. — By  treating  Senna  with  strong  alcohol  the  principles  to  which  the 
griping  qualities  are  due  are  extracted,  without  in  the  least  impairing  its 
cathartic  properties,  when  the  drug,  after  being  dried,  is  easily  exhausted  with 
water  or  weak  alcohol. 

Extractum  Sennce  Fhiid.  Aquosa. — The  drug  is  extracted  with  boiling  water, 
and  20  per  cent  alcohol  added  to  the  cold  infusion,  to  precipitate  resinous 
principles  as  in  the  formula  for  the  official  syrup.  This  process  is  more  simple 
than  the  first  mentioned,  and  is  nearly  equally  effective.  Senna  leaves  ex- 
tracted with  Alcohol  and  afterward  dried,  "deresinized,"  act  as  a  mild  purga- 
tive and  desirable  as  an  ingredient  in  Species  Laxantes,  Ph.  Ger. ;  Jtfat.  Form 

Squill. — Scilla,  U.  S. — Bulb  of  Urginea  maritima,  Baker.  Nat. 
Ord. ,  Liliacese,  deprived  of  its  outer  scale,  sliced  and  the  central  por- 
tion rejected.  Constituents:  Scillipicrin,  scillitoxin,  scillin  and 
mucilage.  Off.  Prep.:  Acetum  Scillae;  Syrupus  Scillae;  Extractum 
Scillae  Fluidum;  Syrupus  Scillae  comp.;  Tinctura  Scillae. 

Uses. — In  the  powdered  form;  obtained  by  drying  the  squill  until  crisp,  and 
adding  about  ten  per  cent  of  Milk  Sugar  during  the  process  of  powdering  to 
preserve  the  squills  in  a  pulverulent  condition. 

Strophanthus . — Strophanthus,  U.  S. — The  Seed  of  Strophanthus 
hispidus,  De  Candolle.  Nat.  Ord.,  Apocynaceae.  Constituents: 
Strophanthin  and  fixed  oil.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Strophanthi,  5  per 
cent. 

Uses. — As  a  substitute  for  Digitalis,  as  a  diuretic;  poisonous. 

Taraxacum. — Taraxacum,  U.  S. — Dandelion.  Root  of  Taraxacum 
officinale,  Weber.  Nat.  Ord.,  Compositae,  gathered  in  autumn.  Con- 
stituents: Inulin.  taraxacin,  resin,  sugar,  etc.  Off,  Prep.:  Extrac- 
tum Taraxaci;  Extractum  Taraxaci  Fluidum. 

Uses. — In  various  unofficial  preparations;  the  Extract  as  excipient  for  Pills. 

Thuja. — (See  Group  4.) 

Uva  Ursi. — Uva  Ursi,  U.  S. — Bearberry.  Leaves  of  Arctosta- 
phylos  Uva  Ursi,  Sprengel.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ericaceae.  Constituents: 
Tannin,  arbutin,  ericolin  and  urson.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Uvae 
Ursi;  Extractum  Uvae-Ursi  Fluidum. 


DRUGS. 


3°3 


Uses. — In  Decoction  and  Infusion,  and  associated  with  other  diuretic  medi- 
cines 

Vanilla. — (See  Group  3.) 

Viburnum  Opulus,  U.  S. — Cramp  Bark,  and 

Viburnum  Prunifolium,  U.  S. — Black  Haw. 

The  Barks  of  their  respective  plants.  Nat.  Ord.,  Capri foliaceae. 
Constituents:  Bitter  principle  (viburnin),  bitter  resin,  valerianic  acid, 
tannin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Viburni  Prunifolii  Fluidum;  Extrac- 
tum  Viburni  Optili  Fluidum. 

Uses. — Similar  to  those  of  Valerian,  which  it  closely  resembles.  Viburnum 
opulus  or  "Cramp  Bark"  is  frequently  preferred  to  V.  prunifolium,  because 
supposed  to  be  more  active. 


UNOFFICIAL    GLUCOSIDAL    DRUGS — GROUP    SEVEN. 


COM   NAME. 

BOT.  NAME. 

PART 
USED. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Agaric  (white). 

Boletus  laricis. 

Plant. 

Laricin,  resin,  acids. 

Ailanthus. 

A.  glandulosa. 

Bark. 

Alianthic   acid,  tannin. 

Apocynum    (Dog's 

A.  Androsaemifolium. 

R'zome. 

Bitter  prin  .  ,  vol.  oil. 

bane). 

Carduus   Benedic- 

Cnicus  benedictus. 

Herb 

Cnicin,  tannin,  etc. 

tus. 

Chamaelirium 

C.  luteum. 

R'zome. 

Chamaelirin. 

(False  Unicorn). 

Cornus  (Dogwood) 

C.  Florida. 

Rt    Bk 

Cornin,  tan.,  resin. 

Corydalis  (Turkey 

Dicentra  Canadensis 

Tubers. 

Corydalin,   resin,   fum- 

Corn). 

aric  acid. 

Coto. 

(Source  unknown.) 

Bark. 

Cotoin,  vol.   oil,   acid. 

Epigsea       (Gravel 

E   repens. 

Herb 

Arbutin,    ericolin.     ur- 

plant). 

son,  tannin. 

Helenium 

H   autumnale. 

Herb. 

Glucoside,  resin,  tan 

(Sneezeweed). 

Helleborus 

Helleborus  niger 

R'zome. 

Helleborin,      hellebor- 

(Black). 

ein,  resin. 

Hippocastanum 

^Esculus  hippocastaneum. 

Bark 

/Esculin.  fraxin,  tan. 

(Horsechestnut). 

Imperatoria. 

I.  Ostruthia. 

Root 

Imperatorin,  vol.  oil. 

Kalmia. 

K.  latifolia. 

Leaves 

Arbutin,  resin,  tan. 

Lactuca  (Lettuce). 

L.  virosa. 

Herb. 

Lactucin,    acid,    lactu- 

copicrin. 

Larch. 

L.  Americana.                       iBark 

Acid,  resin,  tan.,  vol.  oil 

Liriodendron 

L.  tulipifera. 

Bark. 

Liriodcndrin,  resin,  tan 

Pansy. 

Viola  tricolor. 

Herb 

Bitter  prin.  ,  resin. 

Piscidia. 

P.  erythrina 

Bark. 

Piscidin,  resin,  fix    oil 

Polyganatum. 

P.  biflorum;  gigant. 

R'zome. 

Convall  in,  aspa'gin,  etc 

Saponaria. 

S.  officinalis. 

Root. 

Saponin. 

Salix  (Willow). 

S.  alba  and  spec. 

Bark 

Salicin,  tannin. 

Simaruba. 

S.  officinalis. 

Bark. 

Quassin,  resin,  vol.  oil. 

Tonka. 

Dipterix  odorata                    JFruit. 

Coumarin,  fixed  oil. 

Ustilago        (Corn 

U.  Maydis. 

Fung. 

Acids,  fixed  oil. 

smut). 

Xanthium.               |X.  spinosum;  strumarium.   Fruit.         IXanthostrumarin,  resin 

The  Alkaloids. 

Drugs  whose  virtues  depend  partly  or  wholly  on  the  presence  of  one 
or  more  alkaloids  are  called  Alkaloidal  Drugs. 

Definition. — The  Alkaloids,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  termed, 
vegetable  alkalies,  are  peculiar  organic  bases  containing  Nitrogen,  in 
addition  to  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  Oxygen. 
They  are  allied  to  Ammonia,  and,  when  heated  with  alkalies,  give  off 
ammonia,  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  glucosides  and 
neutral  principles.  They  form  crystallizable  salts  with  acids,  and  are, 
medicinally,  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  organic  principles. 

The  alkaloids  are  usually  named  after  the  genus  name  of  the  plant 
from  which  they  are  obtained,  with  the  suffix  of  ine  (Latin  ina),  thus 
distinguishing  them  from  the  neutral  principles  and  glucosides,  which 
terminate  in  /;/  (Latin  inum) . 

There  are  many  exceptions,  however,  to  this  rule,  as,  for  example: 
Morphine,  named  in  honor  of  the  god  of  sleep,  Morpheus;  when  two 
or  more  alkaloids  are  obtained  from  the  same  plant,  as  in  the  alkaloids 
derived  from  the  Cinchonas;  when  the  same  alkaloid  occurs  in  several 
different  plants,  as  Berberine,  and  when  derived  from  the  name  that 
the  plant  was  originally  referred  to  as  Sparteine  (Spartium  Scoparium) 
since  changed  to  another  name  (Cytisus  Scoparius) . 

Origin. — The  alkaloids  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  plant,  yet 
in  the  greater  number  they  are  contained  in  the  seeds  and  fruits,  and 
in  the  trees  they  occur  in  the  bark.  They  are  usually  combined  in 
the  plant  with  one  or  more  vegetable  Acids,  often  peculiar  to  the 
plant,  as  mcconic  acid  in  Opium,  but  frequently,  also,  with  tannic 
acid  or  some  derivative,  of  it,  as  kinic  or  kinoric  acid  in  Cinchona. 

Properties. — They  are  crystalline  solids,  with  a  few  exceptions,  viz.: 
Conrnt,  Lobeline,  Sparteine  and  Nicotine  which  are  liquid,  and  do  not 
Contain  oxygen,  but  these  also  form  crystallizable  salts  with  acids. 
They  are  all  precipitated  by  the  alkalies. 

In  solubility  the  alkaloids  vary  greatly;  by  far  the  greater  portion 
are  insoluble,  or  only  sparingly  soluble  in  Water.  They  are  freely 
soluble  in  Alcohol,  especially  when  hot:  some  also  in  Kther,  Benzol, 
Carbon  disulphide,  and  Ethereal  Oils,  others  in  Amylic  Alcohol  and 
vn'th  one  execution,  morphine,  they  are  very  soluble  in  Chloroform. 


3o8  THE   ALKALOIDS. 

These  liquids  are  variously  used  in  their  extraction,  according  to  their 
solvent  power.  Their  Salts  on  the  other  hand  are  soluble  in  water, 
some  very  freely  so,  also  in  alcohol,  but  most  of  them  are  insoluble  in 
ether  and  chloroform. 

PREPARATION. 

The  preparation  of  alkaloids  consists  usually  in  extracting  the  drug 
with  Water  acidulated  with  about  two  per  cent  Acid;  with  alkaloids 
difficultly  soluble  the  stronger  inorganic  acids,  /.  e. ,  Hydrochloric  or 
Sulphuric  Acids,  are  used;  with  others  more  soluble  the  organic  acids, 
Acetic,  Citric  and  Tartaric,  are  employed  in  the  extraction,  and  with 
still  others,  such  as  Morphine,  the  drug  is  exhausted  with  Water  alone, 
which  dissolves  it  quite  readily,  as  it  exists  in  natural  combination  in 
the  opium.  From  the  watery  solution  the  Morphine  is  precipitated 
by  an  Alkali,  such  as  caustic  Lime  or  Ammonia,  which  neutralizes  the 
meconic  acid  with  which  it  is  combined  as  meconate,  thus  liberating 
the  morphine.  The  morphine  is  then  obtained  quite  pure  by  dissolv- 
ing it  in  boiling  alcohol,  filtering  through  Animal  charcoal,  and  allow- 
ing it  to  crystallize. 

The  Cinchona  Alkaloids  are  best  extracted  with  water,  acidulated 
with  Hydrochloric  Acid,  which,  being  much  stronger  than  the  acids 
with  which  the  alkaloids  are  combined  in  the  bark,  replaces  them  and 
forms  soluble  salts.  The  alkaloids  are  set  free  by  a  strong  alkali;  in 
this  instance  Calcium  Hydrate  (milk  of  lime)  in  excess,  a  portion 
neutralizing  the  acid,  the  remainder  being  insoluble  precipitates, 
carrying  the  alkaloids  with  it.  This  precipitate  is  freed  from  the 
clear  solution,  which  contains  calcium  chloride  and  some  coloring 
matter,  dried,  powdered,  and  then  extracted  with  hot  Alcohol  re- 
peatedly, which  dissolves  only  the  alkaloids,  providing  the  mixture  is 
free  from  water,  until  completely  deprived  of  bitter  taste,  or  exhausted. 
The  alcoholic  solution,  usually  somewhat  colored,  is  filtji^d  through 
animal  charcoal,  when  the  alkaloids  maybe  obtained  quite  pure  by  slow 
evaporation  of  the  alcohol. 

To  produce  salts,  sulphates  for  example,  the  solution  is  rendered  just  per- 
ceptibly acid  to  litmus  by  the  addition  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  allowed  to 
crystallize.  As  the  proportion  of  the  various  cir.chona  alkaloids  varies  greatly 
with  the  kind  of  bark  operated  upon,  it  is  necessary  to  separate  them;  this  is 
done  sometimes  at  different  stages  of  the  crystallization,  sometimes  by  solution 
in  solvents,  in  which  one  of  these  is  soluble,  and  others  are  insoluble. 

With  some  drugs  the  water  extracts  so  much  inert  matter,  starch, 
etc.,  as  to  render  the  subsequent  extraction  of  the  alkaloids  from  the 
extract  exceedingly  difficult.  In  such  cases,  Alcohol  is  used  for  ex- 


PREPARATION— TESTS.  309 

traction,  but  this  also  extracts  other  constituents  usually  present  in 
alkaloidal  drugs,  such  as  resin  and  fat,  and  the  extract,  therefore, 
while  more  concentrated,  still  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of 
inert  matter,  which  must  be  rejected  before  the  alkaloid  can  be  ob- 
tained pure. 

This  is  accomplished  by  mixing  the  extract  with  water  acidulated  with  an 
appropriate  Acid,  and  thoroughly  exhausting  it  by  repeated  washings  with  the 
latter.  The  alkaloidal  base  contained  in  the  extract  is  formed  into  a  salt  by 
the  acid,  and  is  dissolved  in  the  water,  which  contains  acid  in  excess.  The 
resinous  and  fatty  constituents,  however,  are  not  soluble  in  water,  and  still  less 
so  in  acidulated  water,  and  these  are  therefore  left  behind.  The  alkaloids 
may  now  be  precipitated  by  an  Alkali  and  dissolved  in  hot  Alcohol, -the  solution 
rendered  as  colorless  as  possible  by  filtration  through  animal  charcoal,  and  the  alka- 
loids obtained  pure  by  crystallization. 

Some  of  the  alkaloids,  owing  to  their  complex  constitution,  are  so 
delicate  that  they  are  split  up  into  other  substances  when  subjected  to 
prolonged  heat  in  evaporation,  or  treated  with  the  stronger  alkalies, 
as,  for  example,  atropine,  pilocarpine. 

These  are  obtained  from  the  acidulated  aqueous  solution,  first  rendered 
slightly  alkaline,  so  as  to  set  the  alkaloid  free,  by  agitation  with  Chloroform 
which  takes  up  the  alkaloid,  jind,  after  settling  to  the  bottom  of  the  mixture 
the  chloroformic  solution  is  separated  and  leaves  the  pure  alkaloid  upon 
evaporation. 

GENERAL    TESTS. 

With  chemical  reagents  the  alkaloids  behave  similarly  to  ammonia; 
they  are  all  precipitated  by  tannic  acid,  which,  forming  an  insoluble 
compound,  is  given  as  an  antidote  in  cases  of  poisoning.  Owing  to 
their  difference  in  composition,  the  reactions  vary  considerably,  and 
are  often  characterized  by  the  color  produced,  but  the  following  are 
general  tests: 

1.  Sulphuric  or  Xitric  acid  imparts  to  many  a  reddish  color. 

2.  riiosplio-tnolyhdic  acid  produces  a  yellow  precipitate. 

3.  Sih/inin  phospho-tiingstatc  forms  precipitates,  insoluble  in   water,    alcohol, 
ether,  and  in  all  the  mineral  acids,  except  phosphoric. 

4.  Mercuric  J\>t<issiuin  L\lidc,  U.  S. — Mayer's  Solution,  forms  insoluble  pre- 
cipitates of   a  yellowish  color   in  acidulated   aqueous   solutions  mot   alcoholic). 
It  is  used  for  the  quantitative  estimation   of  alkaloids.      (See  U.  S.    Ph.,  p.  4S6 
and  Nat.  Disp.  ) 

With  J'nitinic  and  .  I  uric  C/iicirittcs,  the  Alkaloid  Chlorides  form  very  insoluble, 
crystalline  double  salts  similar  in  composition  to  the  ammonium  compounds 
with  the  chlorides  of  these  metals. 

Also  with  the  C/'i/jria'cs  and  A',//,/,/  of  Mercury,  Bismuth,  Zinc  and  Cadmium 
the  Alkaloids  unite  to  form  insoluble  double  compounds. 

The  Alkaloids  and  their  salts  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  /;/<vw/v///'',y  with 
these  substances  and  they  should  not  be  dispensed  in  conjunction  with  them. 


Cinchona. — Opium. — Nux  Vomica. 

The  respective  alkaloidal  strengths  of  the  two  important  drugs, 
Cinchona  and  Opium,  are  required  by  the  U.  S.  Ph.  to  be  within 
certain  specified  limits.  This  is  also  required  of  the  most  important 
preparations  of  Opium  and  in  one  (the  Extract)  it  is  fixed  definitely. 
Of  Xux  Vomica  the  alkaloidal  strength  is  not  fixed  by  the  U.  S.  Ph., 
but  all  the  preparations  are  required  to  contain  a  specified  amount  of 
total  alkaloids. 

The  method  of  limiting  the  alkaloidal  strength  of  all  alkaloidal  drugs  and 
their  preparations,  termed  standardization,  except  in  the  three  mentioned,  has 
so  far  not  been  adopted  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  In  so  far  as  the  proposition  is  based 
upon  the  assumption  that  the  medicinal  value  of  these  drugs  is  entirely  depend- 
ent on  their  alkaloidal  constituents,  or  that  our  knowledge  concerning  them  is 
sufficient  for  their  satisfactory  determination,  it  is  -wholly  unwarranted;  on  the 
other  hand,  that  their  comparative  value  is  frequently  ascertained  through 
standardization  and  that  the  method  is  an  excellent  corroborative  expedient  in 
determining  tJie  value  of  these  drugs  and  their  preparations  are  indisputable 
facts. 

THE    CINCHONA    BARKS. 

The  Cinchona  Barks  are  obtained  from  many  different  species  of  the 
genus  Cinchona,  and  vary  considerably  in  the  proportion  of  alkaloids 
they  contain,  hence  also  in  medicinal  value. 

The  Pharmacopoeia  recognizes,  by  the  term  Cinchona,  the  Calisaya 
Bark,  formerly  official  as  Yellow  Cinchona,  and  any  bark  of  C.  offici- 
nalis,  or  other  species  and  their  hybrids,  containing  not  less  than  5  per 
cent  Alkaloids,  at  least  half  being  Quinine. 

The  Red  Bark  is  designated  as  Cinchona  Rubra;  the  other  kind, 
known  as  "Pale"  or  Eoxa  Bark,  not  being  official  unless  containing 
she  required  amount  of  alkaloids. 

r'ormerly  Cinchona  was  derived  exclusively  from  South  America  where 
A  was  indigenous  to  Bolivia  and  Peru  (Peruvian  Bark).  During  re- 
cent years  Cinchona  trees  have  been  cultivated  in  the  East  Indies, 
notably  in  the  Dutch  possessions  of  Ceylon  and  Java.  This  has  re- 
sulted in  producing  Cinchona  barks  yielding  a  far  greater  proportion 
of  alkaloids  than  obtained  from  American  Cinchonas  and  also  in  in- 
creasing the  relative  amount  of  the  most  valuable  alkaloid,  the  Quinine. 

The  atsav  process  consists  in  extracting  the  Cinchona  with  Alcohol 
and  Chloroform,  converting  the  alkaloids  into  sulphates,  liberating  the 


THE   CINCHONAS.  311 

alkaloidal  bases  and  extraction  with  Chloroform,  which  yields  the  total 
alkaloids  upon  evaporation.  The  Quinine  is  separated  from  the  other 
alkaloids  through  their  comparative  insolubility  in  Ether. 

Cinchona. — Cinchona,  U.  S. — Calisaya  Bark.  Hark  of  Cinchona 
Calisaya,  Weddell;  C.  officinalis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rubiacea:.  Con- 
stituents: Kinic,  kinovic  and  cinchotannic  acids;  quinine,  quinidine, 
cinc.honine,  cinchonidine  and  quinamine.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum  Cin- 
chona:; Kxtractum  Cinchonre  Fluidum;  Infusum  Cinchonas;  Tinctura 
Cinchonae. 

Calisaya  Bark  contains  the  quinine  in  rather  more  than  one-half  the  quantity 
of  the  total  amount  of  alkaloids,  the  proportion  of  cinchonidine,  and  especially 
cinchonine,  being  quite  small.  While  the  U.  S.  Ph.  directs  that  this  bark 
should  contain  at  least  two  and  one-half  per  cent  of  quinine,  good  specimens 
contain  from  4  to  8  per  cent  of  it,  and  correspondingly  less  of  the  other  inferi- 
or alkaloids.  Calisaya  is  also  the  most  desirable  kind  of  the  cinchonas  phar- 
maceutically,  because  it  contains  less  of  the  more  or  less  inert  and  insoluble 
constituents,  such  as  cinchonic  red,  etc.,  and  the  liquid  preparations  are  there- 
fore less  liable  to  precipitate  than  those  made  from  other  kinds  of  bark. 

Red  Cinchona, — Cinchona  Rubra,  U.  S. — Bark  of  Cinchona  suc- 
cirubra,  Pavon.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Rubiacere,  containing  not  less  than  five  per 
cent  of  its  peculiar  alkaloids.  Constituents:  Same  as  C.  Calisaya. 
Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Cinchonre  composita. 

This  Cinchona,  also  known  as  Red  Peruvian  Bark  or  simply  "Red  Bark," 
contains  usually  somewhat  less  quinine  than  the  Calisaya,  and  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  other  constituents,  especially  cinchonic  red.  It  is  nevertheless  a 
more  valuable  tonic  than  the  yellow  kind,  and  for  this  reason  is  directed  to  be 
used  in  the  Compound  Tincture  of  Cinchona.  Its  liquid  preparations,  especially 
the  Fluid  Extract  (unofficial),  are  exceedingly  prone  to  precipitate,  which  is  to 
a  great  extent  avoided  by  the  addition  of  glycerin  to  the  menstrua,  which  serves 
to  keep  the  cinchonic  red  in  solution. 

J-'.xtractuin  C'liim  ai/iii^suni,  Ph.  Ger.  "Ext.  Chinse  frigid.  parat.,"an  extract 
prepared  by  exhausting  the  coarsely  powdered  bark  with  successive  portions  of 
water,  concentrating,  iiltering  and  evaporating  to  soft  extract  consistence. 

Spurious,  or  false,  barks  are  distinguished  from  the  Cinchona  barks 
by  Grahe's  test:  When  about  1  Gm.  of  the  bark,  in  pieces,  is  heated 
in  a  test-tube,  carmine-red  vapors  are  given  off  which  finally  con- 
dense to  a  red  colored,  tarry  liquid,  if  true  Cinchona  bark. 

THE    CINCHONA     ALKALOIDS. 

A  great  many  alkaloids  have  been  obtained  from  Cinchona  but 
most  of  these  are  derivatives  of  one  of  the  four  principal  ones.  These 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups  according  to  their  characteristics: 

1.   Quinine  and  Quinidine. 

"2.    Cinchonine  and  Cinchonidine. 


3ia  THE   CINCHONA 

In  solubilities  they  differ  widely,  especially  as  to  their  solubility 
in  Water,  the  Quinine  Hydrochlorate  being  very  soluble,  the  #«'</ Sul- 
phate the  most  soluble  of  all,  the  neutral  Sulphate  the  least  soluble  of 
the  sulphates  of  any  of  the  alkaloids.  The  bases  and  all  their  salts  are 
fairly  soluble  in  Alcohol,  Cinchonine  the  least  of  any.  In  Ether,  Qui- 
nine is  moderately  soluble,  its  Salts,  except  the  Hydrobromate,  almost 
insoluble;  the  other  three  bases  and  their  salts  are  very  sparingly  solu- 
ble in  Ether,  the  Cinchonine  least  of  all  and  upon  this  the  method  of 
separating  the  Quinine  from  the  other  alkaloids,  in  the  process  for 
assay,  is  based. 

Quinine  and  Quinidine  form  two  series  of  salts,  viz.:  Neutral 
salts  as  the  Sulphate  and  acid  salts  as  the  Bisulphate;  the  former  being 
very  sparingly  soluble  in  Water;  the  latter  much  more  soluble. 

While  the  solubility  of  the  Quinine  base  in  Water  is  increased  by 
Ammonia  and  decreased  by  Potassa  and  Soda,  the  base  is  precipitated 
from  the  solutions  of  its  Salts  by  all  these  alkalies,  as  well  as  by  the 
Alkaline  Carbonates  and  Bicarbonates. 

The  acid  solutions  of  the  Salts  of  the  Quinine  Group,  Quinine  and 
Quinidine,  give  a  blue  Color,  termed  fluorescence  (1  in  100,000) 
which  is  prevented  by  Chlorine,  Bromine,  Iodine  and  Ferrocyanides. 
They  also  afford  two  reactions  through  which  they  and  their  salts  are 
more  clearly  distinguished  from  the  alkaloids  of  the  other  group,  Cin-. 
chonine  and  Cinchonidine,  viz: 

Thalleioquin  Test. — -To  a  solution  of  the  Salt  (i  in  2,500)  is  added  one-fifth 
its  volume  of  Chlorine  Water  and  then  Ammonia  Water,  drop  by  drop;  an 
Emerald-green  coloration  is  produced,  becoming  blue  in  Acid  reaction  and  violet 
in  excess.  Also  modified:  Potass.  Chlor.  0.02,  HC1  4  drops,  warmed,  add 
water  5  C.C.  and  o.oi  Quin.  Sulph.  and  i  C.C.  Ammon.  Water. 

Hcrapa thite. — The  formation  of  crystals  of  lodo-sulphate  of  Quinine  by  re- 
action of :  Quinine  Sulph.  8.1  dissolved  in  Acetic  Acid  192,  Alcohol  40,  add 
Sulphuric  Acid  i  and  Tr.  Iodine  8  Gm.  Upon  cooling  beautifully  colored 
crystals  separate. 

The  second  group,  Cinchonine  and  Cinchonidine,  do  not  afford  any 
fluorescence  in  dilute  acid  solutions;  they  do  not  produce  the  thalleio-* 
quin  reaction    and   their   free  bases    crystallize    water- free,   while  the 
Quinine  bases  crystallize  with  water,  forming  efflorescent  hydrates. 

The  Groups  differ  in  their  behavior  to  Polarized  light: 
Quinine  and  Cinchonine  are  /K-rv^mz/V. 
Quinidine  and  Cinchonidine  are  iL-xtro^vrate. 

The  Tartratcs  of  Quinine  and  Cinchonine  are  sparingly  soluble  in  water. 
The  Tartrates  of  Quinidine  and  Cinchonidine  are  eiisily  soluble  in  water. 
To  determine  whether  or  not  Ouinir.e  or  its  Salts  are  contaminate  I 


ALKALOIDS. 


313 


with  the  other  alkaloids,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  solubility  of  Quinine 
Sulphate  in  Ammonia  Water,  as  compared  with  the  insolubility  of  the 
other  Alkaloidal  Sulphates. 

The  method  employed  is  a  modification  of  Kerner1  s  Test  and  is 
prescribed  by  the  U.  S.  Ph.  for  Quinine  and  its  most  important  Salts: 

The  Quinine  (2  Gm. )  is  mixed  with  a  certain  amount  (i  Gm.)  of  Ammonium 
Sulphate  and  10  C.C.  distilled  Water,  the  mixture  thoroughly  dried  (rendered 
neutral  if  necessary)  and  agitated  with  20  C.C.  of  Water,  allowed  to  macerate 
for  half  an  hour  at  15  C.  and  then  filtered  through  glass-wool.  Five  C.C.  of 
this  filtrate,  in  a  test-tube,  gently  mixed  with  7  C.C.  of  official  Ammonia  Water, 
without  shaking,  should  produce  a  clear  liquid.  The  presence  of  i  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  other  alkaloids  would  be  indicated  by  the  liquid  assuming  a 
whitish  cloudiness. 


CINCHONA 
ALKALOIDS  AND 
SALTS. 

FORMULA. 

Water 

SoLUBtLI 

Alcohol. 

TIES. 

Ether,  Chlo'-     Gly- 
U.  S.      form,  cerin. 

1670 

740 
10 
34 
54 

IOO 
IOO 

3760 

66 
TO 

Boil'g. 

i5°C  Boil'g. 

QUININA 

(Quinine)  
Quininae 
Sulphas    

C21)H24NZ02+ 
3H20  

(C,0H24X,02), 
H,SO4-f-7H2O. 

*"Hci+2H,O. 
Co0H,4XoO., 
HBr+H2O.. 
C2IIH.,,X20., 
CSH,;)0:!4-  H20 

C,.,H,,N,0  
(Cl9H22NoO)2 

(CIBH'2N,0),  ' 
H,S04-f  3H,O. 

760 
30 
Very, 
i 
Very. 
40 

7 
35oo 
13.6 
1.42 

6 

65 
32 

0.6 

5 
8 
116 

10 

66 

2 

3 
Very. 

.. 

Very. 
26.5 
3.25 
8 

23 
Insol. 

5        200 
680          40 
Insol     

Quininas 
Bisulphas  
Quininaa 
Hydrochloras. 
Quininse 
Hvdrobromas 
Quininse 
Valerianas  
QUIXIDIX/E 
Sulphas  
CIXCHOXIXA 
(  Cinchonine  ). 
Cinchoninaa 
Sulphas  
CIXCHONIDI- 
X.K,  Sulphas.. 

q 

6 

almost 
insol. 

526 

almost 
insol. 

12      

14     

7S 

1316    

Quinine  sulphate,  with  7  molecules  of  water  of  crystallization,  con- 
tains 1(1.18  per  cent  of  Water  and  upon  exposure  loses  as  much  as  10 
to  1-J  per  cent  of  water;  it  should  therefore  be  kept  in  tightly  stop- 
oered  containers  in  not  too  dry  a  place. 

[~.\rs.  —  Chiefly  in  the  form  of  powder  inclosed  in  capsules,  cachets  and  pills, 
coated  with  sugar  or  gelatin.  The  capsules  may  easily  be  given  the  preference 
over  coated  pills  and  have  the  advantage  of  being  prepared  in  the  pharmacy. 
For  pill  mass  the  best  (•.»•(•//'/< •;//  is  Glucose  or  Glycerite  of  Starch.  Dilute  or 
Aromatic  Sulphuric  Arid  acts  dissolving  upon  the  salt  and  forms  a  mass  wh  ch 
becomes  rapidly  brittle  and  must  be  quickly  formed  into  pills  when  used 
instead  of  other  excipients. 


314  OPIUM. 

OPIUM. 

Opium. — Opium,  U.  S. — Concrete,  milky  exudation  obtained  by 
incising  the  unripe  capsules  of  Papaver  somniferum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord., 
Papaveraceae,  yielding  in  its  normal  moist  condition  not  less  than 
nine  per  cent  of  crystallized  Morphine.  Constituents:  Morphine, 
codeine,  thebaine,  narcotine,  narceine,  pseudomorphine,  papaverine, 
and  many  other  alkaloids;  also  meconic  acid,  thebolactic  acid  and 
meconin.  Off.  Prep.:  Opii  Pulvis. 

Opium  contains  about  ten  per  cent  of  moisture,  in  exceptional  in- 
stances twenty  or  even  thirty  per  cent,  and  from  nine  to  fourteen  per 
cent  of  morphine.  Preparations  of  opium  should  therefore  not  be 
prepared  from  the  crude  drug,  but  from  powdered  opium,  which 
should  contain  not  less  than  thirteen  nor  more  than  fifteen  per  cent  of 
morphine. 

^^z  process  of  assay  consists  in  exhausting  the  Opium  with  water 
and  precipitating  the  alkaloids  with  Ammonia  Water;  the  crystals  are 
carefully  separated  from  the  mother-liquid  and  washed  with  Ether  and 
Alcohol  until  obtained  in  a  pure  state. 

The  processes  for  the  assay  of  the  Tincture  and  the  Extract  differ  in 
no  essential  particular  from  the  process  applied  to  the  crude  opium. 

Powdered  Opium. — Opii  Pulvis,  U.  S.  —  Powdered  Opium  contain- 
ing not  less  than  thirteen  nor  more  than  fifteen  per  cent  of  crystallized 
morphine.  Prepared  by  drying  the  crude  drug,  first  separated  into 
smaller  pieces,  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  8o°C.  (185°F.),  until 
it  ceases  to  lose  weight,  and  then  reduced  to  a  very  fine  (Xo.  80)  pow- 
der. It  is  then  assayed  for  its  morphine  strength  (see  Opium  Assay, 
U.  S.  Ph.),  and,  if  necessary,  mixed  with  other  specimens  of  powdered 
opium,  to  bring  the  strength  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  Phar- 
macopceia. 

Deodorized  Opium. — Opium  Deodoratum.  U.  S. — Opium  Denar- 
cotisatum — T.  S.  Ph.,  '8U.  Prepared  from  powdered  opium  by 
macerating  it  successively  with  Ether,  which  extracts  the  principles  to 
which  opium  is  supposed  to  owe  its  disturbing  qualities.  After  hav- 
ing been  freed  from  the  Ether,  the  opium  is  thoroughly  triturated  with 
sufficient  Sugar  of  Milk  to  represent  its  original  weight.  It' is  there- 
fore of  the  same  morphine  strength  as  the  powdered  opium. 

This  is  essentially  the  process  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  Deodorized 
Tincture  of  Opium.  Petroleum  benzin  may  be  substituted  for  ether,  owing  to 
its  economy;  although  it  does  not  extract  narcotine,  it  removes  the  principles 
which  are  supposed  to  be  objectionable  quite  as  completely  as  the  more  high- 
priced  solvent. 


ALKALOIDS.  315 

For  adulterations  and  means  for  their  detection,  see  the  U.  S.  or  Nat.  Dis- 
pensatories. Opium  or  its  preparations  may  be  recognized  by  the  d<'t-p-r,-d 
coloration  produced  by  one  of  its  constituents,  Meconic  Acid,  with  Ferric  Salts, 
which  differs  from  that  produced  with  acetic  acid  by  not  disappearing  on  the 
addition  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  Tinctures  and  Extract  are  officially  directed  to  be  prepared  from  pow- 
dered Opium  (No.  80.)  A  coarser  (granulated)  powder  may  answer  equally  well, 
provided  that  it  is  dry  and  uniform  in  strength. 

The  designation  "aqueous, "  so  much  applied  to  opium  preparations,  should 
be  abolished  since  there  are  no  "strictly  alcoholic"  preparations  of  Opium. 

The  following  Preparations  of  opium  are  official: 

Acetum  Opii;  Vinum  Opii; 

Tincturre:   Opii;  Opii  Deodorata;  Ipecac,  et  Opii;  and 

Pulvis  Ipecac,  et  Opii;  all  10  per  cent. 

Extractum  Opii,  triturated  with  Sugar  of  Milk  so  as  to  contain  IK 
per  cent  morphine;  Emplastrum  Opii  (<>  per  cent  Ext.) 

Tinctura  Opii  Camphorata  0. 4  per  cent. 

Piluke  Opii  6.5  eg.  (ea. );  Trochisci  Glycyrrhiza;  et  Opii  (5  mg. 
(ea.) 

THE    OPIUM    ALKALOIDS. 

Of  the  nineteen  alkaloids  that  have  been  obtained  from  Opium,  only 
two  are  official,  viz.:  Morphine  and  Codeine;  a  third.  Apomorphine, 
being  produced  artificially  from  either  of  these. 

Morphine,  the  first  alkaloid  discovered,  crystallizes  with  one  mole- 
cule of  water,  C17HluXO3-f  H,O. 

It  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  Water,  Ether  or  Alcohol  except  at  the 
boiling  temperature.  Its  salts  are  readily  formed  by  saturating  the 
respective  dilute  acids  with  the  alkaloidal  base  and  obtained  in  crys- 
tals by  concentrating  the  solutions  by  evaporation  at  a  moderate  tem- 
perature. The  salts  are  freely  soluble  in  Water  and,  except  the  sul- 
phate, also  moderately  soluble  in  Alcohol;  they  are  all  practically  in- 
soluble in  Ether. 

The  alkaloid  and  its  salts  are  precipitated  by  solutions  of  I'otassa  and  of 
Soda,  but  the  precipitate  is  dissolved  in  excess  of  the  alkali,  in  which  Morphine 
differs  from  other  alkaloids.  It  forms  a  bright  red  color  with  Nitric  Acid,  but 
remains  colorless  or  becomes  slightly  yellowish  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  if  free 
from  the  other  opium  alkaloids  (narcotine,  papaverine.  etc.  I,  and  upon  the 
addition  of  a  small  crystal  of  Potassium  Permanganate,  it  should  acquire  but  a 
greenish,  no  violet  or  purple  color  (distinction  from  strvchnine'  The  i-per- 
cent  solution  of  the  sulphate  produces  a  l<luc  color  with  a  few  drops  of  solution 
of  Ferric  Chloride,  which  is  destroyed  by  acids,  alcohol,  or  by  heating.  Mor- 
phine solution  is  rendered  cloudv  by  Tannic  Acid  but  the  whitish  coloration 
(or  precipitate)  quickly  disappears  upon  the  addition  of  Acetic  Acid. 


MORPHINE. 


Morphine  is  a  powerful  reducing  agent,  acting  upon  oxides  and  salts 
of  Silver  and  Gold  and  acids  of  Iodine,  liberating  the  Iodine,  thus 
producing  a  reddish  color  in  Hydriodic  Acid;  it  acts  similarly  upon 
the  acids  of  Titan,  Wolfram,  Tin  and  Vanadium  and  with: 

Froehde' s  Reagent  (a"1  1-per-cent  solution  of  Sodium  Molybdate in 
Sulphuric  Acid)  it  produces  a  play  of  colors  ranging  from  violet  into 
blue,  then  from  dirty  green  into  yellow  and  finally  into  pale  red  or 
pink.  This  is  the  most  sensitive  test  for  morphine,  the  reaction  oc- 
curring with  2-J-jj-  mg.  of  the  alkaloid  in  most  dilute  solution. 

By  boiling  with  Acids  and  treating  it  with  Alkalies,  Morphine  loses 
one  molecule  of  water  and  becomes  Apomorphine,  C1?H17NO2,  the 
Hydrochlorate  of  which  is  official;  it  has  entirely  different  properties 
from  morphine  and  is  more  powerful  as  a  poison. 

Codeine  is  separated  from  morphine  in  the  mixed  alkaloids,  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  by  precipitation  and  is  removed  by  solution 
in  Ether  in  which  it  is  very  soluble.  Codeine  throws  morphine  out  of 
solution,  when  added  to  solutions  of  morphine  salts. 


SOLUBILITIES.                           DOSE. 

OPIUM, 

ALKALOIDS  AND 

FORMULA. 

Water. 

Alcohol. 

£, 

Ether, 

i5°C. 

Bol'g. 

i5aC 

U.S. 

Gr. 

MORPHINA 

C1THI9N03+ 

(Morphine).  .  . 

H..O  

4.350 

455 

300 

36 

4,000 

ICg. 

y<* 

Morphirae 
Sulphas  
Morphinae 

HaSCVf-sHjO. 
C17H1!)N03  ' 

2.1 

0-75 

702 

144 

Aim. 
insol. 

O.OI 

to 

to 

Hydrochloras. 

HCl+sH.O 

24       1         0.5 

62 

31 

1  ' 

3cg- 

y2 

Morphinae 

C17H19NO, 

Acetas  

C,H4O.2+3H2O 

2.5              1.5 

47.6 

14 

1,700 

Apomorphinae 

C17H17N02 

De- 

De- 

hypo. 

derm. 

Hvdrochloras. 

HC1 

45 

ICg. 

l/(> 

CODE  IN  A 

C18H2IN03+ 

45       comp. 

cm  p 

2Cg. 

l/3 

(CodeineV  .. 

H.,0  .  . 

So              17 

^ 

Very 

13          6C£T. 

T 

Uses. — Morphine  in  powder,  or  granules,  containing  from  ]2  eg.  (y1,  gr.)to 
3  eg.  (}-2  gr.),  the  maximum  dose.  Hypodermically  the  dose  is  one-half  as 
much,  or  even  less.  A  solution  formerly  official  (70)  contained  i  grain  to  the 
fl.  ounce  of  water;  Magendie's  solution  contained  2  grains  to  the  fl.  dram. 
Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  distinguishing  between  these  two  solutions, 
as  fatal  consequences  have  resulted  from  their  confusion.  Solutions  of  mor- 
phine should  specify  the  strength  desired.  It  should  never  be  administered  to 
children,  the  least  quantity  having  sometimes  proved  fatal. 

For  antiiio'i'  the  stomach  should  be  evacuated  as  promptly  as  possible  by 
Mustard  infusion,  Zinc  or  Copper  Sulphate.  Hot  Decoction  of  Coffee  with 
Brandy  or  Whisky,  but  without  milk,  and  exercise;  as  physiological  antidote, 
Belladonna,  or  Atropine,  hypodermically,  should  be  employed. 

Codeine  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  morphine  in  double  the  dose. 


NUX   VOMICA.  317 

Apomorphine\s  used  only  as  an  emetic,  dose  i  eg.,  or  subcutaneously  in  one- 
half  the  dose. 

NUX   VOMICA. 

Nux  Vomica. — Nux  Vomica,  U.S. — Seed  of  Strychnos  Nux-vomica, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Loganiacece.  Constituents:  Strychnine  one-half 
to  one  per  cent,  brucine,  loganine,  igasuric  acid  and  fixed  oil. 

f'si-s. — Chiefly  for  the  preparation  of  Strychnine,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
poisons,  used  extensively  by  trappers  for  killing  fur-bearing  animals;  also  in  the 
powdered  form.  Nux  vomica  is  reduced  to  a  powder  only  with  great  difficulty, 
owing  to  its  flexible  or  horny  character,  and  to  the  fact  that  it  contains  about 
five  per  cent  of  fixed  oil.  By  subjecting  the  seeds  to  the  action  of  live- 
steam,  however,  and  subsequently  drying  them,  the  integuments  become  brit- 
tle, and  they  are  then  easily  powdered. 

All  the  Preparations  of  Nux  Vomica  are  required  to  contain  a  defi- 
nite percentage  amount  of  total  Alkaloids. 

While  strychnine  is  the  most  active,  if  not  the  only  active,  constitu- 
ent, the  U.  S.  Ph.  does  not  fix  the  strychnine  percentages  but  only  the 
total  alkaloid  amount,  because  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  separa- 
tion of  the  strychnine  from  the  other  alkaloids.  The  strychnine 
constitutes  usually  about  one-half  of  the  total  alkaloids. 

Following  are  the  official  Preparations  with  their  Alkaloidal  strength 
and  also  their  approximate  Drug  strength: 

L+xtractiun  Xncis  Vomica,  contains  15 /£  total  alkaloids;  yield  from  Drug 
about  io^f  ;  i  of  extract  rep.  10  of  Drug. 

Extract  um  Xucis  Vomicit  Fhtiduni,  contains  i.5rr  total  alkaloids;  i  C.C. 
rep.  about  i  Gm.  Drug. 

Tincture  Xiifis  Vomica,  contains  0.3^  total  alkaloids  or  2  ('r  extract;  5  C.C. 
rep.  about  i  Gm.  of  Drug. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  Extract  in  the  powdered  form  it  is  necessary  to  free  it 
from  the  fixed  oil  (derived  from  the  Nux  in  the  extraction)  which  constitutes 
nearly  one-half  of  its  weight.  This  is  done  by  shaking  it  with  Ether  which  dis- 
solves out  the  oil,  but  also  small  quantities  of  the  alkaloids;  these  are  recovered 
from  the  oil,  after  evaporation  of  the  ether,  by  washing  with  Water  acidulated 
with  Acetic  Acid,  rendering  the  liquid  alkaline,  extracting  the  alkaloid  with 
Chloroform  and  adding  it  to  the  oil-free  extract.  After  the  Extract  has  been 
assayed  it  is  triturated  vith  sufficient  Sugar  of  Milk  (nearly  an  equal  weight) 
to  make  it  represent  15  per  cent  of  total  alkaloids. 

From  this  Extract  the  tincture  is  made  by  solution  in  alcohol  and  water. 
The  Fluid  Extract  is  made  by  concentrating  the  percolate  to  one-fifth  and,  after 
assaying  this  extract,  adding  sufficient  menstruum  to  make  it  represent  one- 
tenth  the  strength  of  the  Extract,  or  1.5'^  total  alkaloids. 

The  process  of  Assay  for  Nux  Vomica  is  based  upon  the  property  of 
the  Alkaloids  to  neutralize  Acids.  The  operation  of  determining  the 
quantity  of  alkali  by  saturating  or  neutralizing  it  with  acids  is  that 


3i8  THE   STRYCHNOS 

branch  of  Analysis  called  alkalimetry.  When  performed  by  measure  it 
is  called  Volumetric  Analysis  and  the  solutions  employed  volumetric 
solutions  (V.  S.)-  (See  U.  S.  Ph.,  p.  482.) 

A  certain  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  a  normal,  decinormal  or  centinormal 
solution  of  an  acid,  as  Sulphuric  Acid,  is  required  to  completely  saturate  a  cer- 
tain number  of  C.C.  of  similar  solutions  of  alkalies,  as  Potassium  Hydrate,  or 
a  certain  quantity  of  the  alkali.  The  point  of  exact  neutrality  is  known  by 
the  effect  on  certain  organic  substances  termed  Indicators. 

This  process  is  adapted  to  the  determination  of  alkaloids  by  obtaining  these 
in  a  pure  form  in  solution  in  a  certain  amount  (C.C.)  of  decinormal  Sulphuric 
Acid  and  then  adding  the  required  number  of  C.C.  of  centinormal  Solution  of 
Potassium  Hydrate  to  effect  saturation.  The  amount  of  alkaloid  present  is 
then  found  by  reference  and  calculation  from  the  tables. 

For  further  information  concerning  Volumetric  Analysis  and  its  application 
to  the  assay  of  alkaloids  refer  to  a  "Hand-book  of  Pharmacy,"  by  V.  Coblentz, 
(N.  Y.). 

THE    STRYCHNOS    ALKALOIDS. 

The  plants  of  the  Strychnos  Family  furnish  several  alkaloids 
distinguished  as  the  most  poisonous  of  the  vegetable  principles.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  Strychnine,  obtained  from  the  seed  of 
Strychnos  Xux-vomica  and  also  irom  other  plants  of  the  Loganiacese, 
especially  Strychnos  Ignatia,  formerly  official.  A  second  alkaloid, 
Bmcine,  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  from  the  mother-liquid,  where  it 
is  left  in  the  preparation  of  strychnine,  because  of  its  greater  solubility. 
The  presence  of  a  third  alkaloid,  Loganine,  has  not  been  established. 
The  most  powerful  poison,  "Curare,"  used  for  the  purpose  of  poison- 
ing arrows  by  Indians,  and  an  alkaloid,  ci/rarinc,  are  derived  from 
allied  plants. 

Strychnine  is  almost  insoluble  in  Water  (6,700),  but  it  is  so  in- 
tensely bitter  that  one  grain  is  sufficient  to  impart  a  decided  bitter 
taste  to  over  10  Gallons  of  Water;  it  is  slightly  soluble  in  Alcohol,  in- 
soluble in  Ether,  but  very  soluble  in  'Chloroform,  hence  the  use  of 
this  solvent  in  processes  for  the  extraction  of  the  alkaloids.  Its  salts, 
especially  the  sulphate,  are  moderately  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 

Brucine  is  much  more  soluble  in  Water  and  very  soluble  in  Alcohol 
and  Chloroform,  but  insoluble  in  Ether.  It  is  poisonous  but  less  so 
than  Strvchnine. 

Strychnine  is  not  colored  by  Sulphuric  Acid,  but  when  a  little  of  it 
is  dissolved  in  Sulphuric  Acid  and  then  a  small  crystal  of  Potassium 
Bichromate  is  drawn  through  the  liquid  with  a  glass-rod,  there  will  be 
produced  a  series  of  variegated  colors,  at  first  blue  to  purplish-blue, 
then  gradually  to  violet,  purplish-red  and  cherry-red  in  rapid  succes- 


ALKALOIDS. 


3x9 


sion  and  finally  into  orange  or  yellow.     This  is  the  most  characteristic 
test  for  strychnine. 


STRYCHNOS, 
ALKALOIDS     AND 
SALTS. 

FORMULA. 

SOLUBILITIES. 

Water. 

Alcohol. 

Ether, 

U.  S. 

Chloro- 
form 

i5°C. 

Boil'g. 

i5°C 

Bol'g 

STRYCHNINA 

(Strychnine).  . 
Strychninae 
Sulphas       .... 

6,7OO 

50 
320 

2,500 

2 

150 

no 
loo 

2 

12 
8.5 

Insol. 

7 

(Q,H,,N.202)2  
H2S04-f-5H.2O  .  . 
C2,H,6N204 

BRUCINE  

,7 

Strychnine  is  colored  yellow  by  Nitric  Acid,  whereby  it  is  distinguished  from 
Brucine,  which  is  colored  blood-red  by  Nitric  Acid  and  also  in  a  mixture  of  it 
and  Sulphuric  Acid.  When  Strychnine  is  boiled  with  Hydrochloric  Acid  the 
liquid  turns  red  upon  the  addition  of  a  trace  of  Nitric  Acid.  Ammonium 
Sulphhydrate  added  to  the  solution  of  Brucine  in  Nitric  Acid  renders  the  latter 
intense  violet. 

Uses. — In  the  form  of  trituration,  tablets,  granules  and  associated  with  other 
agents  in  elixirs,  syrups,  etc.  Hall's  solution  contains  i  grain  of  strychnine  to 
the  fl.  ounce  of  weak  Acetic  Acid  (colored  red).  Another  solution  contains  4 
grains  to  the  fl.  ounce  of  Alcohol  (preferably  alcohol  70$);  the  best  form  may 
be  made  metrically;  i  Gm.  in  100  C.C.  which  is  a  saturated  solution. 

The  dose  is  from  2  mg.  (Jy  gr.)  gradually  increased  to  5  mg.  (fa  gr.). 

The  Hypodermic  solution  is  usually  made  from  the  sulphate,  one-per-cent 
solution  in  Water  (i  Gm.  in  100  C.C.). 

Antidote. — Prompt  evacuation  of  the  stomach  by  emetics,  Mustard  Infusion, 
etc.  Physiological  antagonists  are:  Apomorphine  hypodermically  2  eg., 
Chloral  and  Chloroform.  Afterward  purging  with  Castor  Oil,  saline  Cathartics. 
etc. 


Alkaloids  and  Salts. 

THE    MYDRIATIC   ALKALOIDS. 

A  number  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Solanacese  yield 
a  class  of  alkaloids  which  exercise  a  peculiar  effect  of  dilating  the  pupil 
of  the  eye.  This  effect  is  termed  mydriasis  and  the  agents  producing 
it,  mydriatics. 

These  alkaloids,  of  which  Atropine  is  the  type,  comprise  Hyoscya- 
mine,  Hyoscine  and  several  others,  which,  although  obtained  from 
different  plants,  are  so  closely  related  as  to  be  considered  identical 
and  have  nearly  the  same  chemical  and  physical  properties. 

Atropine,  the  most  important  of  this  class,  is  obtained  chiefly  from 
the  leaves  and  root  of  Atropa  Belladonna;  Hyoscyamine  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves  and  seeds  of  Hyoscyamus  niger  and  also  from  the 
seeds  of  Datura  Stramonium,  formerly  called  daturine;  from  Uuboisia 
myoporoides  (ituboisinc)  and  from  the  root  ofScopolia  atropoides  and 
S.  Japonica,  the  alkaloids  of  which  are  also  called  scopolaminc  and 
scopolin,  and  also  as  a  by-product  in  the  preparation  of  Atropine  from 
Belladonna,  in  which  it  is  retained  in  the  mother-liquid  because  of 
its  greater  solubility  in  water  and  dilute  alcohol.  Recent  researches 
indicate  that  these  are  all  identical  with  Hyoscyamine  and  in  fact  that 
the  two  alkaloids  may  be  obtained  from  any  one  of  all  the  different 
plants  here  mentioned. 

Hyoscine  is  an  uncrystallizable  alkaloid  derived  from  the  mother- 
liquid  from  the  preparation  of  Hyoscyamine  and  Atropine.  from  which 
it  is  also  produced,  by  converting  it  into  a  Hydrochlorate,  precipitat- 
ing it  as  a  Gold  double-chloride,  decomposing  this  and  dissolving  in 
Ether  and  crystallizing  it  as  Hydrochlorate. 

As  to  solubilities,  the  official  Salts  of  these  alkaloids  are  all  very 
soluble  in  Water  and  in  Alcohol;  they  are  all  very  slightly  soluble  in 
Kther  and  sparingly  or  very  slightly  soluble  in  Chloroform.  The 
base,  Atropine,  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  freely  soluble  in 
alcohol.,  ether  and  chloroform. 

Atropine  is  split  by  HC1,  at  100  to  i3o'C.,  into  Tropin,  CSHI5NO  and 
Tropic  Acid,  Cl(H10Oj;  the  former  by  reagents  is  reduced  to  a  number  of  deriva- 
tive compounds. 

These  Alkaloids  and  their  Salts  all  respond  to  practically  the  same 
reactions: 


ATROPINE. 


321 


With  Sulphuric  Acid  no  coloration  until  warmed,  then  brownish;  i  mg. 
warmed  with  Sulphuric  Acid  and  diluted  with  an  equal  volume  of  Water, 
develops  orange-flower  otfur  and  by  the  addition  of  a  crystal  of  Potassium 
Pichiomate  or  Permanganate  the  odor  is  changed  to  that  of  Hitter  Almond. 

A  grain  of  it  sprinkled  with  fuming  Nitric  Acid  leaves  a  yellow  residue,  which 
when  dampened  with  alcoholic  solution  of  Potassa  produces  an  intense  violet 
color  (Vitali's  test). 

All  these  alkaloids  and  their  salts  produce  precipitates  with  Mercuric-potas- 
sium Iodide,  but  not  with  Platinic  Chloride,  through  which  they  are  distin- 
guished from  most  other  alkaloids. 

They  all  produce  precipitates  with  Auric  Chloride  and  through  the  appear- 
ance of  this  compound,  crystallized  from  alcohol,  the  various  bases  may  be 
distinguished  from  each  other.  (See  U.  S.  Ph.) 


MVDRIATIC 
ALKALOIDS  AND 
SALTS. 

FORMULA. 

SOURCE. 

SOLUBILITIES. 

Water. 

i5rc. 

Alcohol. 
i5°C. 

Ether, 
U.  S. 

Chloro- 
form. 

ATROPINA 

(Atropine)  .  .  . 
Atropinae 
Sulphas  

C17H23N03  

(C17H2,NOS)2 
H.,SO4  

Atropa 
Belladon- 
na .... 
R'ts,    1'vs. 
Hyoscya- 
mus,  Stra- 
monium... 
Leaves    & 
Seeds.  . 

130 
0.4 

0.5 
0-3 
1.9 

3 

6.2 

2-5 

2 
13 

16 
2,270 
Sl'htly 
3,000 
Sl'htly 

4 

604 

Slightly 
250 
Slightly 

HYOSCYAMI- 

N^i,  Sulphas.. 
Hyoscyaminas 
Hydrobromas. 
HYOSCIN^J 
Hydrobromas. 

(C17H2,NO:j), 
H2SO4  

Ci7H23NO,HBr  .. 
C17H21NO4HBr 

4-jH,o  

Homatrvpine. — Cl6H.jiNO3. — Oxytoluyl-tropein  is  produced  by  acting  upon 
the  Amygdalic  Acid  Salt  of  Atropine  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  precipitation  with 
Alkalies,  extraction  with  Chloroform  and  crystallizing  into  the  Hydrochlorate. 

It  is  said  to  act  as  quickly  as  atropine  and  to  have  the  advantage  in  that 
the  effects  on  the  pupil  (dilatation)  is  of  but  from  12  to  24  hours  duration  as 
against  a  period  of  8  days  for  the  effects  of  atropine  to  wear  off. 

I'ses. — In  ophthalmology  in  one-per-cent  solution.  Hypodermically  in 
doses  ranging  from  %  mg.  (.j^  gr.)  to  i  eg.  (l/(,  gr.).  Sometimes  by  the 
mouth  in  doses  somewhat  larger,  in  the  form  of  granules,  tablets,  etc. 

OTHER    OFFICIAL    ALKALOIDS. 

Caffeine.  —  C8H10X4O2  +  H,O.  —  Caffeina,  U.  S.— Theine.  An 
alkaloid  obtained  from  "Tea,"  Thea  Sinensis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord., 
Ternstroumiaceoe;  from  Coffea  Arabica,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Rubiacese; 
also  from  Guaranaand  some  other  plants. 

Soluble  in  80  parts  of  water,  in  33  parts  alcohol,  in  555  parts  ether,  in  7  parts 
ot  chloroform,  in  9.5  parts  boiling  water  and  very  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol. 

It  is  a  very  feeble  base  and  forms  salts  with  difficulty.  The  official 
preparations  of  it  are  not  true  compounds,  but  simply  mixtures  with 
citric  acid: 

Caffeina  Cilrata,  U.  S. — Caffeine  and  Citric -Acid  equal  parts,  dissolved  in 
water,  evaporated  to  dryness  and  powdered.  It  forms  a  clear  solution  with  3 


322  THE   OFFICIAL   ALKALOIDS 

parts  of  water,  but  is  precipitated  upon  further  dilution  until  25  parts  of  watel 
is  added  when  it  remains  clear. 

Caffeina  Citrata  Effervescent,  U.  S. — Same  as  the  preceding  mixed  with 
Sodium  Bicarbonate  and  Tartaric  Acid,  made  into  a  paste  with  Alcohol, 
rubbed  through  a  coarse  sieve,  dried  and  obtained  as  a  granular  powder. 

It  contains  -2.%  of  Citrated  Caffeine;  from  2  to  5  Gm.  dissolved  in  water  taken 
as  an  effervescent  draught. 

Cocaine  Hydrochlorate.—  C17H21NO4HC1. — Cocainae  Hydrochloras, 
U.  S. — Obtained  from  Erythroxylon  Coca.  Coca  Leaves.  Contains 
also  two  other  alkaloids,  ecgonine,  C9HigNO3,  and  benzoylecgonin. 
both  of  which  are  left  in  the  mother-liquor  from  the  preparation  of 
cocaine.  These  are  converted  into  cocaine  by  a  synthetic  process, 
which  adds  considerably  to  the  yield  and  has  also  reduced  the  cost 
of  the  alkaloid. 

The  hydrochlorate  is  the  salt  usually  employed  and  is  dispensed 
even  when  the  alkaloid  itself  may  inadvertently  be  prescribed. 

It  is  soluble  in  about  one-half  its  weight  (0.48)  of  water,  in  3. 5  parts  alcohol, 
in  2800  parts  ether  and  in  17  parts  of  chloroform.  Heated  with  Sulphuric 
Acid  it  gives  off  vapors  of  Benzole  Acid;  at  the  ordinary  temperature  it  is  not 
colored  by  Sulphuric  or  Nitric  Acids.  It  should  be  tested  for  the  absence  of 
other  Coca  bases  by  potassium  permanganate.  It  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
sense  of  numbness  it  leaves  upon  the  tongue. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  the  form  of  solution  from  i  to  5  per  cent  strength  for 
hypodermic  use.  These  should  be  prepared  by  metric  quantities;  i  Gram  for 
each  per  cent  wanted,  in  100  C.C.  of  Distilled  or  Chloroform  Water.  It  should 
not  be  dispensed  except  upon  prescriptions. 

Hydrastinine  Hydrochlorate.^  -CHHnNO2HCl. — Hydrastininas  Hy- 
drochloras, U.  S. — An  artificial  alkaloid  derived  from  Hydrastine, 
the  colorless  alkaloid  obtained  from  Hydrastis  Canadensis. 

Through  oxidizing  agents  Hydrastine  C^H.-XO.  is  converted  into 

*  21        -il  o 

Hydrastinine,  CnHuNO2  and  Opianic  Acid,  C10H10Or: 
C21H8lN06+0-C11H11NOa+C10H1005. 

The  hydrochlorate  is  in  light  yellow,  amorphous  granules  or  a  pale  yellow 
crystal1  ine  powder,  very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  difficultly  soluble  in  ether 
or  chloroform.  It  imparts  a  blue  fluorescence  to  water,  i  mg.  in  100  Liter. 

C'st's. — As  an  emmenagogue,  as  a  substitute  •  for  Ergot,  in  doses  of  2  to  3  eg.; 
or  hypodermically  in  lo-per-cent  solution. 

Physostigminc  Sulphate.  —  (C15H21N3O2)  8H2SO4  —  Physostigminae 
Sulphas,  U.  S. — Eserine  Sulphate.  Obtained  from  Physostigma, 
"Calabar  Bean." 

A  yellowish  white  powder  very  deliquescent,  gradually  turning  reddish  upon 
exposure  to  the  air  and  light  and  should1  therefore  be  kept  in  small,  dark, 
amber-colored  and  well-stoppered  vials.  Very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 


AND   THEIR   SALTS.  323 

Physostigmine  Salicylate.  — C1,.H.!1N3O2C7H8O3.  —  Physostigminae 
Salicylas,  U.  S.. — Eserine  Salicylate. 

Faintly  yellowish,  acicular  crystals,  acquiring  a  reddish  tint  upon  exposure 
and  must  therefore  bo  kept  with  same  precautions  as  the  sulphate.  Soluble  in 
150  parts  of  water,  in  30  parts  boiling  water  and  in  12  parts  of  alcohol.  Its 
aqueous  solution  produces  with  ferric  chloride  a  deep  violet  color. 

L'si's. — As  a  motor  depressant  in  doses  of  i  mg.  (Glj  grain).  Also  in  ophthal- 
mology to  contract  the  pupil  in  gelatin  disks,  Lamellar,  Ph.  Br.,  containing 
T&iJS  8rain- 

Pilocarpine  Hydrochlorate. — CuH18NaO.,HCl. — Pilocarpinae  Hy- 
drochloras,  U.  S. — Obtained  from  Pilocarpus,  or  Jaborandi. 

Small  white  crystals,  deliquescent  on  exposure  to  damp  air  and  should  there- 
fore be  kept  in  small  well-stoppered  vials.  Very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol; 
almost  insoluble  in  ether  or  chloroform. 

Csi-s. — A  motor  depressant,  diaphoretic  and  sialagogue,  i  to  3  eg  ;  hypoder- 
mically  i  eg. 

Sparfeinr  Sulphate. — C1.H.,(.\.,H2SOt-f  4H2O. — Sparteinae  Sulphas, 
U.  S. — The  neutral  Sulphate  of  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  Scoparius, 
Cytisus  (Sparteum)  Scoparius. 

White,  prismatic  crystals  or  granular  powder,  deliquescent  when  exposed  to 
damp  air.  Very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 

L'ses. — A  motor  excitant,  diuretic,  laxative,  in  large  doses  emetic;  dose  i  to  5 
eg.,  hypodermically  l/i  to  3  eg. 

Veratrinc. — Veratrina,  U.  S. — A  mixture  of  Alkaloids  obtained 
from  Cevadilla  seed,  Asagrea  officinalis,  Mid  not  from  Veratrum  as 
its  name  would  indicate. 

To  the  alkaloids  obtained  from  Sabadilla  and  Veratrum  (White 
Hellebore),  the  name  was  first  applied,  but  when  the  distinction  of 
the  alkaloids  of  the  two  drugs  had  been  proved,  the  name  of  rcra- 
trine  was  retained  for  the  total  alkaloids  derived  from  Cevadilla,  while 
those  found  in  Veratrum  were  termed  jcrrinc,  veratralbinc,  etc. 

Veratrine  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  Water,  soluble  in  3  parts  Alcohol,  in  6 
parts  of  Ether  and  in  2  parts  Chloroform. 

With  Nitric  Acid  it  forms  a  iv//<;rc'  solution;  with  Hydrochloric  Acid  upon 
heating  a  deep-red  color. 

With  Sulphuric  Acid,  upon  trituration  in  a  glass-mortar,  it  forms  a  iv//<'7t'  or 
erange-rtd  solution,  exhibiting  by  reflected  light  a  ^rccnii'k  lluorescence,  while 
deep-red  by  transmitted  light. 

L'ses. — Only  externally  in  the  form  of  the  Oleate  (±r'<},  Ointment  (4  ^  V  It 
produces  great  irritation  in  contact  with  the  nasal  membrane  and,  therefore, 
when  employed  in  preparing  Ointments,  etc.,  should  not  be  triturated  in  its 
dry  form,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  liquid  substance.  It  is  very  poisonous. 


The  Alkaloidal  Drugs. 


UNOFFICIAL    ALKALOIDS    AND    SALTS. 


NAME  OF 
ALKALOID. 

FORMULA. 

>  SOURCE. 

SOLUBILITIES*. 

DOSE. 

Water 

Alco.    Ether. 

Gr. 

Aconitine 
(Cryst.)  
Aspidospermine 
Berberine 
hydrochlor  
Colchicine  

CfflH43N012.... 

C22H30N202  
C20H17N04 
HC1+4H2O 

Aconitum..  .  . 
Aspidosp'ma. 
Berberis, 
Hydrastis. 
Colchicum  ... 

Conium  

726 
6000 

Mod. 
Insol. 

IOOO 

Sp'g'iy 

Insol. 

24 
5° 

Mod. 

20 

Freely 

Mod. 

40 

IOO 

Insol. 

10 

Freely 
Spar. 

dcg.i 

mg.  i 
eg.    i 

rh 

1-2 

'I/ 

Coniine 
hydrobrom  
Delphinine  
Emetine  

C8H17N,HBr  . 
C22H35NO6  
Not  determin'd 
C12H14N02.... 

Staphisagria. 
Ipecac  
Gelsemium... 
Hydrastis  .... 
Veratrum 
alb,  et  vir. 

Granatum  ... 

eg.    i 

2-6* 

Gelsemine  

Hydrastine  .... 
Jervine  

Pelletierine 
(Punicine) 
tannate  

C26HH7N03+ 
2H2O 

CbH15NO4- 

0.4 

7 

*The  alkaloids  are  all  soluble  in  chloroform. 

Aconite. — Aconitum,  U.  S. — Aconite  Root. — The  tuberous  Root 
of  Aconitum  Napellus,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ranunculacese.  Constitu- 
ents: Aconitine,  napelline,  fixed  oil,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Aconiti;  Extractum  Aconiti  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Aconiti. 

Preparations  of  Aconite  Leaves  were  formerly  official  (U.  S.  Ph.,  '70)  and 
the  Tincture  and  Extract  are  still  occasionally  employed.  These  are  not  as 
strong  as  the  respective  preparations  of  the  root,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
they  be  not  confused  with  one  another.  Aconite  is  the  most  poisonous  of  the 
official  Drugs. 

Uses. — In  preparing  Aconitia,  a  mixture  of  the  active  principles  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  crystallized  alkaloid,  Aconitine,  Duquesnel;  an  Abstract 
and  a  Liniment,  all  formerly  official. 

Aspidospcnna. — Aspidosperma,  U.  S. — Quebracho.  Bark  of  Aspi- 
dosperma  Quebracho-bianco,  Schlechtdal.  Nat.  Ord.,  Apocynaceae. 
Constituents:  "Aspidospermin,"  a  mixture  of  several  alkaloids: 
aspidospermine,  aspidospermatine,  quebrachine  and  two  others;  also 
tannin  in  considerable  quantity.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Aspido- 
spermatis  Fluidum. 


ALKALOIDAL   DRUGS.  325 

Belladonna  Root. — Belladonnas  Radix,  U.  S. — Root  of  Atropa 
Belladonna,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanaceae.  Constituents:  Atropine 
from  0.4  to  1  per  cent  and  secondary  alkaloids  said  to  be  identical 
with  those  obtained  from  Hyoscyamus  and  Stramonium.  Off.  Prep., 
Extractum  Belladonna;  Radicis  Fluiduni. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  Atropine  and  in  the  form  of  powder;  the  Extract 
formerly  in  Belladonna  Plaster  and  in  the  Abstract,  '80.  Old  and  woody  roots 
should  be  rejected,  as  their  yield  of  alkaloid  is  much  less  than  in  young,  plump 
and  light  colored  specimens  of  the  drug. 

Belladonna  Leaves. — Belladonnas  Folia,  U.  S. — Leaves  of  Atropa 
Belladonna,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanaceas.  Constituents:  Same  as 
in  the  Root  in  about  the  same  proportion.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Belladonnas  Foliorum  Alcoholicum;  Tinctura  Belladonnas  Foliorum. 

Uses. — Similar  to  the  root;  also  in  the  "Powdered  Extract"  and  in  the 
official  Belladonna  Plaster. 

Calumba. — (See  Group  7.) 

Chelidoniitm. — Chelidonium,  LT.  S. — Celandine.  Herb  of  Chelido- 
nium  majus,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Papaveraceae.  Constituents:  Cheli- 
donine,  sanguinarine,  chelidoxanthine,  chelidonic  acid. 

Uses. — As  Fluid  Extract,  Tincture  and  Extract  Ph.  Ger.,  prepared  from  the 
juice  expressed  from  the  fresh  leaves. 

Colchiciim  Root. — Colchici  Radix,  U.  S. — Corm  of  Colchicum 
autumnale,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Liliaceaj.  Constituents:  Colchicine, 
starch,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Colchici  Radicis;  Extractum 
Colchici  Radicis  Fluidum;  Vinum  Colchici  Radicis. 

Uses. — In  the  form  of  powder  and  in  the  preparation  of  an  unofficial  Vine- 
gar and  Oxymel. 

Colchicum  Seed. — Colchici  Semen,  U.  S. — Seed  of  Colchicum 
autumnale,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord..  Liliaceas.  Constituents:  Colchicine, 
colchiceine,  fixed  oil.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Colchici  Seminis 
Fluidum;  Tinctura  Colchici  Seminis;  Yinum  Colchici  Seminis. 

Colchicum  Seed  contains  a  large  proportion  of  fixed  oil  which  is  liable  to 
separate  and  cause  turbidity  in  its  preparations;  its  uses  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  root. 

Coninin.—  Conium.  I*.  S.  —  Poison  Hemlock.  Fruit  of  Conium 
maculatum.  Linne.  Nat.  Ord..  I'mbellifenv.  Constituents:  Confine, 
conhydrine.  fixed  oil.  volatile  oil.  Off.  Prep.:  Fxtractum  Conii, 
Extractum  Conii  Fluidum.  a  Tincture  and  an  Abstract  formerly 
official. 

The  alkaloid  Coniine  is  very  volatile,  and  Acetic  Acid  is  used  in  extracting 
the  drug  to  "fix"  it.  that  is  to  prevent  its  volatilization  in  the  process  of  con- 


326  THE   ALKALOIDAL 

centration  which  should  be  effected  by  a  moderately  warm  heat.     The  leaves, 
formerly  official,  have  been  discarded,  owing  to  their  being  often  inert. 

Coca. — Coca,  U.  9l — Erythroxylon,  U.  S.  '80  Leaves  of  Ery- 
throxylon  Coca,  Lamarck.  Nat.  Ord.,  Lineae.  Constituents:  Co- 
caine and  hygrine.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Cocas  Fluidum. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  the  alkaloid  Cocaine  and  its  salts,  chiefly  the 
hydrochlorate,  largely  used  as  anaesthetic,  also  in  the  form  of  Elixir,  Extract, 
Wine  and  Infusion.  (See  Nat.  Form.) 

Gelscmium. — Gelsemium,  U.  S. — Yellow  Jasmine.  Rhizome  and 
rootlets  of  Gelsemium  sempervirens,  Persoon.  Nat.  Ord. ,  Logani- 
aceae.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  gelsemine,  gelseminic  acid  and 
resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Gelsemii  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Gelsemii. 

Uses. — "Gelsemin,"a  resinoid  and  an  Extract  (solid)  which  represents  ten 
times  its  weight  of  the  drug. 

Guarana. — Guarana,  U.  S. — Paste  prepared  from  crushed  seeds  of 
Paullinia  Cupana,  Kunth.  Nat.  Ord.,  Sapindaceae.  Constituents: 
Caffeine  four  per  cent,  tannin,  saponin  and  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Ex- 
tractum Guarance  Fluidum. 

Uses. — In  the  Various  Elixirs,  simple  and  compound.  In  the  powdered  form 
and  an  Extract,  one  grain  of  which  represents  about  four  grains  of  the  drug. 

Hydrastis.- — -Hydrastis,  U.  S. — Golden  Seal.  Rhizome  and  root- 
lets of  Hydrastis  Canadensis,  Linne.  Xat.  Ord.,  Ranunculaceae. 
Constituents:  Berberine,  hydrastine.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Hydras- 
tis Fluidum;  Glyceritum  Hydrastis;  Tinctura  Hydrastis. 

Uses.  —  "Hydrastin,"  a  resinoid;  being  a  mixture  of  the  active  principles 
chiefly  of  berberine  (hydrochlor).  This  term  is  a  misnomer,  because  of  the 
existence  of  a  second  alkaloid  in  this  drug  to  which  the  term  hydrastine  has 
been  applied.  The  so-called  "aqueous  fluid  extract'' is  similar  to  the  Gly- 
cerite;  a  colorless  solution  of  the  alkaloid  Hydrastine  and  an  artificial  alkaloid, 
Hydrastinine,  are  also  used. 

Hops. — Humulus,  U".  S. — Strobiles  of  Humulus  Lupulus,  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  L'rticacere.  Constituents:  Volatile  oil,  tannin  four  per 
cent,  resin,  lupuline.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Humuli. 

Uses. — As  Poultice  or  Plaster,  Infusion;  and  in  the  brewing  of  Beer;  also  an 
unofficial  Extract  and  Fluid  Extract. 

Hyoscyamits. — Hyoscyamus,  U.  S.  —  Henbane.  Leaves  of  Hyo- 
scyamus  niger,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanaceae.  (Should  becollected 
from  plants  of  the  second  year's  growth.)  Constituents:  Hyoscya- 
mine.  hyoscineaml  hyoscipicrin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Hyoscyami; 
Extrartum  HyG.-ryami  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Hyoscyami. 

Uses.  —  In  the  powdered  form,  but  chiefly  in  the  form  of  Extract  and  Ab- 
stract, about  one-third  the  strength  of  the  extract,  formerly  official. 


DRUGS.  327 

Ipecac. — Ipecacuanha,  U.  S. — Root  of  Cephaelis  Ipecacuanha,  A. 
Richard.  Nat.  Orel.,  Rubiaceai.  Constituents.  Emetine,  ipecacu- 
anhic  acid,  resin,  etc.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum  Ipecacuanha?  Flui- 
dum;  Pulvis  Ipecacuanha,-  et  Opii;  Trochisci  Ipecacuanhas;  Trochisci 
Morphina:  et  Ipecacuanhse. 

('M\(.  —  In  the  form  of  powder  (as  a  prompt  emetic  in  doses  of  ten  grains). 
The  Syrup,  Tincture  of  Ipecac  and  Opium,  and  Wine  of  Ipecac  (U.  S. )  are  all 
prepared  from  the  fluid  extract. 

Lobelia. — Lobelia,  U.  S.  —  Leavesand  tops  of  Lobelia inflata,  Linne. 
Collected  after  flowering,  but  before  seeds  are  entirely  ripe.  Nat. 
Ord.,  Lobeliacere.  Constituents:  Lobeline.  lobelacrin,  lobelic  acid 
and  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum  Lobelia:  Fluidum:  Tinctura  Lobelias. 

I'scs. — As  Decoction  and  Infusion;  sometimes  in  the  form  of  powder;  also  in 
a  number  of  preparations  of  the  Eclectic  school  and  the  Vinegar,  formerly 
official. 

Me  ni sperm  inn. — -Menispermiim,  U.  S. — Moonseed,  Yellow  Parilla, 
Rhi/.ome  and  rootlets  of  Menispermum  Canadense,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.. 
Menispermacese.  Constituents:  Berberine,  menispine,  resin.  Off. 
Prep.:  Kxtractum  Menispermi  Fluidum. 

I'scs. — Infusion  and  in  several  preparations  of  the  Am.  Dispensatory. 

Pareira. —  Pareira,  U.  S.  —  Pareira  Brava.  Root  of  Chondodendron 
tomentosum,  Rui/ and  Pavon.  Nat.  Ord.,  Menispermaceaj.  Con- 
stituents: Pelosine,  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum  Pareint  Fluidum. 

Cscs. — In  Decoction  and  Infusion. 

Pepper. — (See  Group  3.) 

Physostigma. —  Physostigma,  U".  S. — Calabar-Bean.  Seed  of  Phy- 
sostigma  venenosum.  Balfour.  Nat.  Ord.,  Leguminosge.  Constitu- 
ents: Physostigmine,  calabarine  and  physosterin.  Off.  Prep.:  Kxtrac- 
tum  Physostigmatis;  Tinctura  Physostigmatis. 

f's,-s.  —  In  the  preparation  of  the  alkaloid  and  its  official  salts. 

Pilocarpus. — Pilocarpus,  V .  S. — Jaborandi.  Leaflets  of  Pilocarpus 
Selloanus,  Kngler  (Rio  [aneiro)  and  P.  Jaborandi.  Holmes  (Pernam- 
buco).  Nat.  Ord.,  Rutacerc.  Constituents:  Pilocarpine,  volatile  oil. 
Off.  Prep.:  Kxtractum  Pilocarpi  Fluidum. 

Cses. — Infusion  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  alkaloid  Pilocarpine,  and  its 
various  salts,  hydrochlorate,  nitrate,  etc. 

Pomegranate.  —  Granatum,  U.  S.  —  Bark  of  Stem  and  Root  of 
Punica  Granatum,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Lythrariea:.  Constituents: 
Pelletierine.  ])imicine,  tannin,  etc. 

Uses.  —  In  Decoction,  and  in  the  preparation  of  Felletierine  Tar.nate,  both 
used  as  remedies  for  Ta.-nia. 


328  THE   ALKALOIDAL 

Sanguinaria. — Sanguinaria,  U.  S. — Bloodroot.  Rhizome  of  San- 
guinaria  Canadensis,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Papaveraceac.  Constituents: 
Sanguinarine  one  per  cent,  resins.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Sangui- 
narire  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Sanguinaria?. 

Uses. — In  the  form  of  powder,  as  a  sternutatory  and  emetic;  also  in  the 
preparation  of  an  Extract  and  as  Decoction  and  a  Vinegar,  formerly  official. 

Scoparius, — Scoparius,  U.  S. — Broom.  Tops  of  Cytisus  Scoparius, 
Link.  Nat.  Ord.,  Leguminosae.  Constituents:  Scoparin,  sparteine, 
tannin,  volatile  oil.  Extractum  Scoparii  Fluidum. 

Uses. — A  Decoction  and  the  official  alkaloid  Sparteine  (sulph.). 

Spigelia. — Spigelia,  U.  S. — Pink  Root.  Rhizome  and  rootlets  of 
Spigelia  Marilandica,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Loganiacese.  Constituents: 
Volatile  oil,  bitter  alkaloidal  principle,  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Spigelire  Fluidum. 

Uses. — Infusion  and  Decoction,  usually  associated  with  purgatives,  such  as 
Senna.  The  Comp.  Fluid  Extract  Spigelia  and  Senna  was  formerly  official  for 
the  preparation  of  "Worm  Syrup." 

Staphisagrict. — Staphisagria,  U.  S. — Stavesacre.  Seeds  of  Delphi- 
nium Staphisagria,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ranunculaceoe.  Constituents: 
Delphinine.  delphinoidine,  delphisnine  and  iixed  oil. 

Uses. — Chiefly  as  an  insecticide,  the  whole  seeds  being  used,  and  in  the  form 
of  Tincture. 

Stramonium  Leaves. — Stramonii  Folia,  U.  S. — Leaves  of  Datura 
Stramonium,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanacece.  Constituents:  Atropine 
and  hyoscyamine,  the  mixture  of  the  two  formerly  railed  daturine. 

Stramonium  leaves  have  been  superseded  by  the  seeds,  these  being  more 
active  in  the  official  preparations. 

Stramonium  Seeds. — Stramonii  Sernen,  U.  S. — Seeds  of  Datura 
Stramonium,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanacene.  Constituents:  Atropine, 
hyoscyamine,  fixed  oil  twenty-five  per  cent.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum 
Stramonii  Seminis;  Extractum  Stramonii  Fluidum  Seminis;  Tinctura 
Stramonii  Seminis. 

Liquid  preparations  of  Stramonium  seed,  owing  to  the  considerable  quantity 
of  fixed  oil  they  contain,  are  very  prone  to  precipitation.  An  Ointment  is  pre- 
pared from  the  extract. 

Tobacco. — Tabacum,  L".  S. — Dried  leaves  Nicotiana  Tabacum, 
Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Solanacea?.  Constituents:  Nicotine  two  to  eight 
per  cent,  nicotianin,  resin,  extractive  matter. 

Uses. — In  the  form  of  powder,  "Snuff."  An  Ointment  is  prepared  from  an 
aqueous  extract  of  the  leaves:  Oil  of  Tobacco  by  dry  distillation. 

I'eratnim  J7r/i/<'. — Veratrum  Yiride,  t  .  S.  -(American  or  (ireen 
Hellebore.)  Rhi/ome  and  rootlets  of  Yeratrtim  viride,  Solander. 


DRUGS. 


329 


Nat.  Ord.,  Liliaceoe.  Constituents:  Jervine,  pseudo-jervine,  rubi- 
jervine,  veratroidine  and  resin.  Off.  Prep.:  Extractum  Veratri  Viri- 
dis  Fluidum;  Tinctura  Veratri  Viridis. 

f/sfs. — A  Tincture  prepared  from  the  green,  or  fresh  drug,  according  to  the 
General  Formula,  Norwood's  Tincture. 


UNOFFICIAL    ALKALOIDAL    DRUGS — GROUP    RIGHT. 


COM.  NAME. 

Box.  NAME. 

PART 
USED. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Achillea  (Yarrow) 

A.   millefolium. 

Herb. 

Achilleine,    resin,  vola- 

tile oil,  tannin. 

Alstonia. 

A.  constricta. 

Bark. 

Ditaine,            ditamine. 

resin. 

Angustura. 

Galipea  cusparia. 

Bark. 

Angusturine,        resins, 

vol.  oil. 

Ash  (white). 

Fraxinus  Americana. 

Bark. 

Alkaloid,  volatile  oil, 

Baptisia         (Wild 

Baptisia  tinctoria. 

Root. 

Baptisine,  resin,  etc. 

Indigo.) 

Barberry. 

Berberis       vulgaris,        B. 

Root       or 

Berberine,        vinetine, 

aquifolium. 

Root  br'k 

etc. 

R'zome. 

Boldus. 

Boldoa  fragrans. 

Leaves. 

Boldine,   resin,  volatile 

oil. 

Cevadilla. 

Veratrum  Sabadilla. 

Seeds. 

Veratrine,        cevadine, 

cevadillin. 

Cicuta. 

Cicuta  maculata. 

Herb. 

Cicutine. 

Coffee. 

Coffa?a  Arabica. 

Seeds. 

Caffeine,     volatile    oil, 

tannin. 

Cuprea  Bark.          Remijia    pendanculata  R 

Quinine  and  other  Cin- 

Purdicana. 

chona  alkaloids. 

Delphinium  (Lark  D.  Consolida. 

Seeds. 

Delphinine,    fixed     oil, 

spur). 

etc. 

Gold  Thread.           Coptis  trifoliata. 

Herb. 

Berberine,          coptine, 

resin. 

Ignatia. 

Strychnos  Ignatia. 

Seed. 

Strychnine,       brucine, 

oil. 

Jequiriti.                    Abrus  precatorius. 

Seeds. 

Alkaloid,     abric      acid, 

fixed  oil. 

Mate. 

Ilex  Paraguensis. 

Leaves. 

Caffeine,    tannin,  vola- 

tile oil. 

Nectandra. 

Xectandra  Rodia?i. 

Bark. 

Berberine,          sipirine, 

etc. 

Poppy.                        Papaver  somniferum.             Fruits. 

Opium    alkaloids     (see 

Opium). 

Ptelea          (wafer- 

Ptelea  trifoliata.                     Root            Berberine,  volatile  oil, 

Ash). 

bark.       etc. 

Sarracenia 

S.  purpurea 

Herb   and  Sarracenine,  acids. 

(Pitcher  plant.) 

Root. 

Scopolia. 

S.  Japonica.                               Root.           Atropine.  resin. 

Theobroma. 

Theobroma  Cacao.                  Seeds.          Caffeine,    theobromine, 

Yeratrum     (  white 

Hellebore.) 
Xanthorrhiza 

(Yellow  root.) 


Veratrum  album. 


R'zome.       Jervine.  pseudo-rubijer- 
vine.  ver'tr  Ibine,  etc. 
Root.  Berberine. 


Classification    of   Drugs. 

GROUP  No.  I.  Demulcent  Drugs,  including  those  parts  of  plants 

whose  chief  constituents  are  either  Starch,  Gum   or 
Sugar  or  any  or  all  of  these  together. 

GROUP  No.  II.  Refrigerant  or  Acid  Saccharine  Drugs  whose  con- 
stituents are  Sugar  associated  with  some  acid  such  as 
Tartaric,  Citric  or  Malic  Acids. 

GROUP  No.  III.  Aromatic  Drugs,  whose  chief  constituent  is  a 
Volatile  Oil  sometimes  associated  with  a  resin. 

GROUP  No.  IV.  Resinous  Drugs  whose  chief  constituent  is  Resin 
which  may  be  associated  with  Volatile  or  acrid  Fixed 
Oil,  tannin  and  bitter  principle. 

GROUP  No.  V.  Oily  Drugs  whose  principal  constituent  is  a  bland 
Fixed  Oil  or  Fat  usually  associated  with  gum,  or 
mucilage. 

GROUP  No.  VI.  Astringent  Drugs  whose  principal  constituents  are 
Tannic,  or  Gallic  Acid,  or  both,  sometimes  asso- 
ciated with  volatile  oil,  resin  or  other  principles. 

GROUP  No.  VII.  Glucosidal  Drugs  in  which  the  most  active  medi- 
cinal constituents  are  Glucosides  or  glucosidal.  It 
embraces  Drugs  furnishing  the  Neutral  or  "bitter" 
principles  as  well  as  the  Glucosides.  Also  the  class 
termed  Reactionary  Drugs. 

GROUP  No.  VIII.  Alkaloitlal  Drugs,  in  which  the  most  active  con- 
stituents are  Alkaloidal,  i.  e. ,  yielding  one  or  several 
Alkaloids. 

GROUP  No.  IX.  Animal  Drugs,  including  medicinal  Animals  and 
Animal  products  and  derivatives  not  otherwise 

classified. 


Animal   Drugs,   Group   IX. 

As  Animal  Drugs  are  here  included  those  substances  of  arimal 
origin  not  heretofore  treated  of,  or  classified  as  having  special  proper- 
ties. They  embrace: 

Whole  animals,  as  Cantharis  and  Coccus  and 

Secretions,  as  Musk,  Oxgall,  Milk,  Egg,  Isinglass  and 

The  Ferments  Pepsin  and  Pancreatin. 

Cantharis. — Cantharis,  U.  S. — "Spanish  Flies. "  Whole  animal  of 
Cantharis  vesicatoria,  DeGeer.  Nat.  Ord.,  Coleoptera  of  the  class 
Insecta.  Constituents:  Cantharidin.  Off.  Prep.:  Ceratum  Canthar- 
idis;  Collodium  Cantharidatum:  Tinctura  Cantharidis. 

Uses. — Chiefly  in  the  form  of  Cerate  for  spreading  "Blisters,"  also  in  Lini- 
mentum  Cantharidis,  formerly  official. 

Cochineal. — Coccus,  U.  S. — Dried  female  of  Coccus  cacti.  Linne. 
Nat.  Ord.,  Hemiptera  of  the  class  Insecta.  Constituents:  Carminic 
acid.  Off.  Prep.:  Tinctura  Cardamomi  Comp. 

I'st's. — In  Comp.  Tincture  Cochineal,  X.  F.,  for  coloring  Elixirs  and  for 
preparing  Carmine,  which  is  a  compound  of  the  coloring  principle  with 
alumina,  etc. 

Oxyil/.—  Fel  Bovis,  U.  S.— -'Fel  Tauri."  Fresh  gall  of  Bos 
Taurus,  Linne.  Nat.  Ord.,  Ruminantia  of  the  class  Mammalia.  Con- 
stituents: P)ilirubin,  cholesterin,  glycocholic  and  taurocholic  acids. 

Fel  Boils  Pnrificatum,  U.    S.  —  Inspissated   and   Purinrd   Oxgall,  U.  S.    Ph. 
'So.      Prepared  by  evaporating  the  liquid  Oxgall  to  one-third  its  weight,  adding 
an  equal  volume  of  Alcohol.     The   alcoholic  solution,    freed   from   the  precipi- 
tated impurities,  is  then  concentrated  by  evaporation  to  a  pilular  consistence. 

Uses. — Exceedingly  rare;  sometimes  in  pills. 

hin^Iass. — Ichthyocolla,  U.    S. — Swimming  bladder  of  Acipenser 

Huso,    Linne,    and   other  species   of  the    same    genus.  Nai.    Prd., 

Sturiones  of  the   class    Pisces.      Constituents:     Gelatin.  (  )ff.     Prep. : 
Emplastrum  Ichthyocollse. 

Uses. — In  the  preparation  of  "Court  Plaster"  and  as  a  clarifving  airent  in 
beer  brewing,  etc.  Russian  Isinglass  is  the  must  valuable  and  is  the  kind  chiefly 
employed.  American  Isinglass  is  prepared  from  the  sounds  of  the  I  lake;  it  is 
inferior  to  the  first-mentioned  and  much  cheaper. 

J///.V/'. — Moschus,  I  .  S.  —  Dried  secretion  from  preputial  follicles 
of  male  of  Moschus  moschiferus,  Linne.  Nat.  (>rd..  Ruminantia  of 
the  class  Mammalia.  Constituents:  Cholesterin.  fat.  ammonia,  albu- 


332  ANIMAL 

minous  and  gelatinous  substances,  etc.   Off.  Prep.:    Tinctura  Moschi. 

Uses. — In  Flavoring  and  Perfumery;  seldom  in  medicine,  as  a  nervous  seda- 
tive. 

Pepsin. — Pepsinum,  U.  S. — Pure  Pepsin.  A  proteolytic  Ferment, 
or  enzyme,  obtained  from  the  glandular  layer  of  fresh  Stomachs  from 
nealthy  Pigs;  the  chief  digestive  principle  of  the  gastric  juice. 

It  should  be  capable  of  digesting  not  less  than  3,000  times  its  own 
weight  of  freshly  coagulated  and  disintegrated  Albumen  when  tested 
by  the  official  process. 

Pepsin  is  obtained  from  the  finely  comminuted  inner  lining,  or 
membrane,  of  the  Hog's  stomach  by  macerating  it  in  Water  contain- 
ing about  2  per  cent  Hydrochloric  Acid,  expressing  and  filtering  the 
liquid  and  obtaining  the  pepsin  by  either  of  the  following  methods: 

Scheffer's  process, — The  solution  is  saturated  with  Sodium  Chloride,  through 
which  the  pepsin  is  thrown  out  of  solution  and  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid 
from  which  it  is  transferred  to  a  strainer  and  the  adhering  liquid  removed  by 
expression.  The  residue  consists  of  pepsin  associated  with  other  products  of 
the  action  of  acid  on  albumen,  svntonin,  and  the  result  of  the  digestive  effect  of 
the  pepsin  on  the  albumen,  peptone  and  parapcptonc.  To  free  the  pepsin  from 
these  by-products  is  very  difficult  and  has  never  been  entirely  effected,  abso- 
lutely pure  pepsin  not  yet  having  been  produced. 

Upon  the  small  masses,  resulting  from  drying  the  residue,  the  adhering  salt 
crystallizes  and  is  removed  by  immersion  in  water.  The  pepsin  is  purified  by 
re-solution  in  Acidulated  Water  and  re-precipitation  with  Salt.  It  may  also  be 
precipitated  with  Alcohol,  pepsin  being  insoluble  in  liquids  containing  40  per 
cent  alcohol.  This  pepsin  is  dissolved  with  great  difficiilty  and  has  been  used 
chiefly  in  the  powdered  form,  made  by  adding  Sugar  of  Milk  to  the  freshly  pre- 
cipitated pepsin,  drying  and  powdering  and  adjusting  its  strength  by  the  addi- 
tion of  Milk  Sugar. 

Pepsinum  saccharatuni. — Saccharated  Pepsin  of  the  strength  of  i  in  10  of  Milk 
Sugar,  i  gr.  dissolving  300  grs.  albumen,  is  also  official. 

Soluble  repsins  are  made  from  the  Acid  Solution  obtained  as  above,  or  by 
digesting  the  membrane  with  the  Acidulated  Water  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  neu- 
tralizing the  expressed  liquid,  filtering  and  evaporating  it  to  a  syrupy  consist- 
ence and  then  obtaining  the  product  in  the  form  of  transparent  scales  by 
spreading  it  upon  plates  of  glass  and  heating  in  a  drying  closet.  There  are 
many  modifications  of  this  process,  whereby  it  is  claimed  products  of  greater 
purity  and  strength  arc  obtained.  These  depend  upon  limiting  the  formation 
of  the  by-products  referred  to.  by  the  use  of  Sulphurous  Acid.  etc. 

These  pepsins  consist  chiefly  of  peptone,  and  rapidly  deteriorate 
and  assume  a  disagreeable  animal,  glue-like  odor:  they  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  very  soluble  in  Water,  without  the  addition  of  acid, 
and  are  therefore  well  adapted  to  the  preparation  of  liquids,  elixirs, 
etc.  Thev  are  very  hygroscopic  and  must  be  kept  in  tightly  closed- 
vessels,  in  a  cool  and  dry  place. 


DRUGS.  333 

The  process  for  the  valuation  of  Pepsin  consists  in  determining  its 
protcolytic  power,  or  the  ratio  of  its  decomposing  or  digestive  effect 
upon  proteids,  especially  albumen  and  fibrin.  Pepsin  in  acid  solution 
and  at  the  body  temperature,  :JH°  to  40°C.,  (100  to  104°F.)  digests 
proteid  substances,  converting  them  into  a  soluble,  readily  assimilable 
form  called  peptone. 

The  test  is  effected  by  adding  10  Gm.  freshly  coagulated  and  prepared  Egg- 
white  to  100  C.C.  of  Water  containing  2  C.C.  of  Dilute  Hydrochloric  Acid  and 
/j  C8  dl(j  8r-)  °f  Pepsin,  heated  1040  C.  The  mixture  is  kept  at  this  tempera- 
ture and  agitated  every  15  minutes,  when,  at  the  expiration  of  5  or  6  hours,  all 
the  Albumen  should  have  been  digested  and  the  mixture  have  resulted  in  an 
almost  clear  solution.  By  varying  the  strength  of  the  solutions,  the  variation 
in  power  of  any  pepsin  may  be  ascertained. 

The  process  may  be  effected  in  15  minutes  by  adding  the  Egg-white  directly 
to  the  Water,  coagulating  and  disintegrating  it  by  boiling  and  stirring  and 
then  adding  the  cooled  mixture  to  the  acid  solution  of  Pepsin  and  maintaining 
it  at  a  temperature  of  55  C.,  constantly  shaking  it. 

Pancreatin. — Pancreatinum,  U.  S. — A  mixture  of  enzymes  natur- 
ally existing  in  the  Pancreas  (sweetbread)  of  warm-blooded  animals, 
usually  from  that  of  the  Hog  (and  Calf). 

It  is  prepared  by  different  methods:  By  maceration  with  acidulated 
Water,  neutralization  with  Calcium  Carbonate,  precipitation  of  the 
clear  liquid  with  Alcohol,  collecting,  drying  and  mixing  the  residue 
with  Sugar  of  Milk. 

The  scaled  form  is  prepared  by  extraction,  freeing  from  fat  by  washing  with 
Ether  and  drying  on  plates  of  glass. 

Pancreatin  peptonizes  milk,  and  0.28  of  it  dissolved  in  100  C.C.  of  tepid 
Water,  with  1.5  of  Sodium  Bicarbonate,  added  to  400  C.C.  of  Milk,  heated  to 
4o"C.  and  the  mixture  maintained  at  this  temperature  for  thirty  minutes,  the 
milk  should  be  so  completely  peptonized  that  a  little  of  it,  transferred  to  a  test- 
tube,  should  show  no  coagulation  with  Xitric  Acid. 

Ptvalin. — A  Ferment  present  in  the  Saliva;  has  the  same  properties  as  Dias- 
tase, obtained  from  malt. 

Uses. — The  above  three  Principles  represent  the  three  fermentative  stages  of 
the  process  of  digestion: 

Ptyalin  has  amylolotic  properties,  that  is,  converts  Starch  and  Carbohydrates 
generally  into  glucose,  into  which  all  amyloid  and  saccharine  substances  must 
be  changed  before  they  can  be  assimilated. 

Pepsin,  secreted  by  the  stomach,  in  conjunction  with  Hydrochloric  Acid 
(and  Lactic  Acid)  digests  all  albuminous  substances  into  the  form  necessary  to 
their  assimilation,  pcptotie. 

Pancreatin  is  a  mixture  of  principles  representing  the  properties  of  the  two 
preceding  Ferments  and  in  addition  possesses  the  property  in  alkaline  media  to 
emulsifv  Fats,  thus  facilitating  their  assimilation. 

The  Pulvis  Pepsini  Compositus,    N.    F.,   "Pulvis  Digestivus,"  is  a  mixture  of 


334  ANIMAL 

the  different  principles  with  Milk  Sugar  and  Hydrochloric  and  Lactic  Acids  to 
represent  the  Digestive  Fluids  in  their  natural  proportions.  Pepsin  is  largely 
used  in  the  powdered  form,  also  in  tablets,  etc.,  in  Elixirs,  WineSj  Glycerite, 
and  Solutions.  (See  Nat.  Formulary.) 

Milk. — Lac  Vaccinum. — Secretion  of  the  character  of  an  Emulsion 
obtained  from  the  Cow  yields  an  organic  acid: 

Lactic  Acid. — HC3H.O3. — Acidum  Lacticum,  U.  S. — Containing 
75  per  cent  by  weight  of  absolute  acid;  sp.  gr.  1.213. 

Jt  is  formed  in  Milk  when  it  sours  by  the  fermentation  of  the 
Sugar  of  Milk,  and  may  be  formed  in  solutions  of  various  other 
Sugars  by  fermentation  in  the  presence  of  casein  and  certain  other 
proteid  compounds  resembling  it.  The  Lactic  Acid  so  formed  is  com- 
bined with  Calcium  or  Zinc,  the  Lactate  separated  and  decomposed  by 
strong  Acids  which  set  the  Lactic  Acid  free. 

A  syrupy  liquid  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water,  alcohol  and  ether,  but 
not  with  benzin  or  chloroform. 

Off.  Prep. — Syrupus  Calcii  Lactophosphatis. 

YolkofEgg.—'V\te\\\s&,  U.  S.— Yolk  of  Egg  of  Gallus  Bankiva, 
var.  domesticus,  Temminck.  Nat.  Ord.,  Gallinae  of  the  class  Aves. 
Constituents:  Vitellin,  fixed  oil,  inorganic  salts,  etc.  Off.  Prep.: 
Glyceritum  Vitelli. 

Uses. — For  preparing  Emulsions,  especially  with  strongly  alcoholic  liquids, 
for  example,  spirit  nitrous  ether,  in  which  Acacia  would  precipitate. 


DRUGS. 


325 


UNOFFICIAL    ANIMAL    DRUGS,     GROUP    NINF,. 


COM.  NAME. 

SCIENTIFIC  NAME. 

PART 
USED. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Ambergris. 
Blatta. 
Castcreum. 

Ambra  Grisea. 
Blatta  Orientalis.              .    'Insect. 
Castor  Fiber.                          !Gland'l'r 

Ambriin,  etc. 
Antihydropin,  fats,  etc. 
Vol.    oil,    castorin,    sa- 

Secret'n 

licine,  etc. 

Civet. 

Viverra         Zibetha,         or  GlandTr 

Vol.     oil,      fat,     resin. 

V.  Civetta.                               Secret'n 

salts,   etc. 

Bone. 
Coral. 
Cuttle-bone. 

Os. 

Corallium      rubrum      and 
Oculina  Virginea. 
Os  Sepias. 

Calc.  skel- 
eton. 
Calc.  skel- 
eton. 

Calcium       phosphates, 
carb.  Mag.  phos.  etc. 
Calcium     carb.,    Mag- 
nesium carb.,  etc. 
Calcium     carb.,     Mag- 
nesium   carb.    Phos- 

Gelatin. 

Gelatina. 

phates  (traces). 
(Glue   consists  of  gela- 
tin,    chondrin      and 

Hyraceum. 

Hyrax  Capensis. 

Excr.      or 
S  ec  r  e- 

various  impurities). 
Vol.     oil,       resin,      fat, 
various     acids      and 

tion. 

salts. 

Sponge. 

Spongia  officinalis. 

Horny 
skeleton 
or   Ash. 

Spongin,  various  salts, 
including  iodides. 

ARTIFICIAL    ALKALOIDS. 

The  Pyridin  bases  obtained  from  the  tarry  residue  in  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  Nitrogenous  substances,  such  as  Bone,  or  made 
synthetically.  They  are  colorless,  strongly  alkaline  liquids  of  pene- 
trating odor,  forming  salts  with  acids.  The  most  important  are: 

Pyridin. — C.H.X — and  its  homologue  Pyrrol,  C4H4\H. 

loctsl. — C4I4NH.  — Tetra  iodo  pyrrol.  Made  by  mixing  alcoholic  solutions  of 
Pyrrol  and  Iodine  and  separating  the  lodol  by  the  addition  of  water.  Con- 
tains 98  r/'c  iodine. 

Uses. — As  an  inodorous  substitute  for  lodoform. 

The  Chinolin  bases — Chinoline  C9H  X — a  colorless  liquid,  forming 
salts  with  acids;  the  Tartrate  has  been  used.  Also  a  number  of  de- 
rivatives. 

A'am«.—CuH15NO.HCl.— Known  as  "A"  and  "M." 

Thallin.—  CaH,)(OCH3)XH.—  From  Paranitrophenol.  The  Sulphate;  solu- 
ble in  7  water;  too  alcohol. 

Aiitipvriu. — CUH12X..O. — Dimethyl-Phenyl-iso-Pyrazolon.        From     Phenyl- 
hydrazin  with  acetic  ether,  etc.      Soluble  in  i    part  of  water,  alcohol  or  chloro- 
form, in  50  parts  6f  ether.      Solution  colored  red  by  Ferric  chloride. 
ANIMAL    ALKALOIDS. 

From  fresh  meat  an  alkaloid  crcatinin  C^H^XjO  has  been  obtained  and  a 
number  of  derivatives  of  it. 

Ptomaines,  also  called  Septicine,  are  alkaloids  produced  in  the  Cadaver  by 
decomposition  of  albumen  or  as  the  result  of  bacterial  changes.  Some  are  ex- 
ceedingly poisonous,  others  are  non-poisonous. 


Solutions. 

Solutions  may  be  divided,  according  to  the  character  of  the  solvent 
employed,  into  groups  of  aqueous,  alcoholic,  saccharine  and  ethcrtal 
.solutions,  and  Glycerites  and  Oleates. 

The  Aqueous  solutions  embrace  two  classes:  The  Waters  and  the 
Liquors  or  pharmacopceial  Solutions. 

WATERS— AQU^E. 

The  Waters  are  solutions  of  volatile  substances  in  Water. 

The  nineteen  official  Waters  may  be  divided,  according  to  their 
character  or  method  of  preparation,  as  follows: 

1.  Natural  Waters: 

Aqua. — Water,  H2O. — Natural  water  in  its  purest  attainable  state. 

2.  The   Aromatic    Waters. — Solutions    of   Essential  Oils   or  other 
volatile  principles  in  Water.      With    one  exception    (Aq.    Amygdal. 
am.),  they  are  saturated  solutions  and  are  as  follows: 

(<;)  By  simple  solution: 

Aqua:  ft  by  vol. 

Amygdalae  Amarae bitter  almond  oil     0.1 

Creosoti creosote      1. 

Chloroformi chloroform  (in  excess)  about     0.5 

Aurantii  Florum dist.  water  50. 

stronger  orange  flower  water  50. 

O  O 

Rosce dist.  water  50,  stronger  rose  water  50. 

(/')  Solution  by  intervention  of  Calcium  Phosphate  and  filtration: 
Aqua:  ft  {iy  -,,/. 

A  nisi anise  oil     0.2 

Cinnamomi cinnamon  oil     0.2 

Foeniculi fennel  oil     0.2 

Menthoe  Piperitre peppermint  oil     0.2 

Menthre  Viridis  ...     •    • spearmint  oil     0.2 

Camphors alcohol  0.5,   camphor     0.8 

The  oils    are    triturated  with    twice   their  weight    of   precipitated  calcium 
phosphate,  the  water  gradually  added  and  the  mixture   filtered.     Camphor  is 
first  reduced  to  powder  with  a  little  alcohol. 
(<-)  By  distillation: 

Aqua  Dcstillata. — Distilled  Water. — By  distilling  Water,  rejecting 
the  first  1U  per  cent  of  the  distillate,  collecting  the  succeeding  80  per 
cent  and  preserving  it  in  bottles,  loosely  stoppered  with  cotton. 


342  SOLUTIONS. 

Aqua  Aurantii  Florum  Fortior.     Aqua  Rosae  Fortior. 

These  are  made  by  distillation  from  the  fresh  Orange  flowers  and  Rose  leaves, 
respectively,  and  obtained  chiefly  as  by-products  in  the  manufacture  of  their 
essential  oils. 

The  Aromatic  Waters  may  also  be  prepared  by  the  hot-water  method:  In- 
troducing the  Oil,  dropped  on  a  folded  filter,  in  hot  water,  shaking  the  con- 
tainer, allowing  it  to  'Stand  until  thoroughly  cold  and  obtaining  the  water  by 
filtration. 

3.  Chemical  Waters. — Solutions  of  Gases  in  Water,  made  by  chem- 
ical reaction  and  absorption.  All  but  Ammonia  Water  are  saturated 
solutions:  Sp.  gr.  %  by  w't. 

Aqua  Ammonias 0.960       NH3 — 10. 

Ammonias  fortior 0.900       NH3 — 28. 

Chlori  .  MnO.2-f-4HCl=MnCl2+Cl2+2H2O  Cl—  0.4 

Hydrogenii  Dioxidi  .    .  1  vol.  eq.  lOvols.O  H2O2 —  3- 

The  preparation  of  these  and  the  reactions  involved  have  been  described 
under  the  Elements  from  which  they  are  respectively  produced. 

SOLUTIONS— LIQUORES. 

The  twenty- four  official  Solutions  are  solutions  of  non-volatile  sub- 
stances, chemical  salts,  in  Water.     They  are  divided  into  two  Groups: 
(1)  Simple  solutions.      (2)   Chemical  solutions. 

1.  Simple  Solutions  are  prepared  by  dissolving  the  substance  in 
water.      Three  are  prepared  by  volume: 

Liquor:  .    </c  by  vol. 

Acidi  Arseniosi (HC1  5)  acid  arsenous     1. 

Arseni  et.  Hydrargyri  lodidi arsenic  iodide     1. 

(Donovan's)  mercuric  iodide     1. 

Sodii  Arsenatis sodium  arsenate     1. 

%  «;'/. 
lodi  Comp potassium  iodide  10,  iodine     5. 

2.  Chemical  solutions:     These  include  all  those  solutions  made  by 
forming  new  chemical  compounds,  either  by  double  decomposition, 

direct  union  or  other  chemical  methods. 

The    weaker   of   these   being   used  internally,   are  prepared    by  volume;  the 
stronger  ones,  chiefly  used  for  the  production  of  other  compounds  and  prepara- 
tions, are  made  by  weight. 
Prepared  by  volume: 

Liquor:  ^  iy  T0i. 

A.mmonii  Acetatis  .    .  amon.  carb.  5,  acid  acet.  NH4C2H3O2     7. 

Calcis lime  0.3,  water  100,  Ca(OH)2     0.17 

Ferri  et  Ammonii  Acetatis sol.  amon.  acet.   20. 

(Basham's  Mixture)  acid  acetic  dil.  3,  tr.  ferric  chl.     2. 

arom.  elixir  10,  glycerin  12. 


SOLUTIONS.  343 

(Liquor es,  continued.')  ft  by  vol. 

Plumbi  Subacetatis  dilutus sol.   lead  subacetate     3. 

Potassii  Arsenitis  .....  potass,  bicarb  2,  acid  arsenous     1. 
(Fowler's)  tinct.  lavender  comp.      3. 

Potassii  Citratis  .  potass,  bicarb  8,  acid  citric  6,  K3CflH5O7     9. 
Magnesii  Citratis  ....  magnes.  carb.  15  G.,  acid  citric 
30  G.,  syrup  acid  citric  CO  C.C.,  potass,   bicarb.  2.5, 
water  to  350  c.c.  for  one  bottle. 
Prepared  by  weight: 

Liquor:  </c  by  wt.  sp.  gr. 

Hydrargyri  Nitratis  ....  red  mercuric  oxide  40, 

HNO3  45,  Hg  (NO3)Z     CO.      2.100 

Plumbi  Subacetatis  .    .  lead  acet.  17,  lead  oxide  10     25.      1.195 
Potassse    ....  potass,  bicarb.  8.5,  lime  4,  KOH        5.      1.036 

Sodrc sod.  carb.  17,  lime  5,  NaOH        5.      1.059 

Sodne  Chloratre  .  sod.  carb.  15,  lime  chlorin  7.5,  Cl       2.G   1.052 

Sodii  Silicatis sodium  silicate     50.      1.3-4 

Zinci  Chloridi  .  zinc  24,  HC1  84,  HNO,,  12,  ZnCla     50.      1.535 
The  Iron  Solutions  are  made  by  acting  on   the  metal  with  the  re- 
spective acids;  Hydrochloric  Acid  to  produce  the  Chloride  and  SuU 
phuric  Acid  to  produce  the  Sulphate. 

These  are  ferrous  salts  and  are  oxidized  into  ferric  salts  by  Nitric 
Acid: 

Liquor  ft  by  w't.  Sp.  gr. 

Ferri  Chloridi HC1  5,  Fe,Clfi     3V. 8     1.387 

Ferri  Subsulphatis  .    .    .  .  (Monsell's)   subsulphate     43.7      1.550 

Ferri    Tersulphatis Fe2(SO4)3     2S.7     1.320 

By  precipitation  with  Ammonia  AVater,  washing,  etc: 

Ferric  Hydrate,  Fe.,(OH)6,  from  which,  by  solution  in  their  respective  Acids 

the  following  are  produced: 
Liquor  yc  by  w<t.  s/>.  K,-. 

Ferri  Acetatis Fe,(C2H.jO.))(.     31.        1.100 

Ferri  Citratis Fea(C6H.O.)2     42.5     1.250 

Ferri  Nitratis Fe2(XO3)6       0.3      1.050 

From  the  solution  of  the  Citrate,  the  scaled  salts  are  prepared.  All 
the  solutions  of  iron  have  a  characteristic  reddish-brown  color,  except 
that  of  the  Nitrate,  which  is  amber-colored. 


344  SPIRITS, 

SPIRITS— SPIRITUS. 

The  Spirits  are  Alcoholic  solutions  of  volatile  substances. 
Of  the  25  official,  t\vo  are  "natural"  spirits  (made  by  distillation-. 
Spiritus  Frumenti  and  Sp.  Vim  Gallici  and  are  treated  of  as  "Products 
by  Fermentation"),  fifteen  are  solutions  of  essential  oils  and  called 
"Aromatic  Spirits,"  or,  when  used  for  flavoring,  "essences";  in  some 
of  the  last  mentioned,  Deodorized  Alcohol  is  used  as  the  solvent: 

1.    Natural  Spirits,  by  distillation:                              %!>vw't.  %  by  vol. 

Spiritus  Frumenti  containing  alcohol  .    .    .    .  44  to  50  50  to  58 

Spiritus  Vini  Gallici       "              "...    .39  to  47  46  to  55 

j.   Made  by  solution:  fc  by  vol. 

Spiritus  Athens ether  (C2H5)2O  32.5 

•Tpiritus  ^Etheris  Comp.    .    .    .    ethereal  oil  2.5,  ether  32.5 
(Hoffmann's  anodyne) 

Spiritus  Chloroformi chloroform  6. 

Aromatic  Spirits  or  "Essences." 

Spiritus:  f0  by  vol. 

Amygdalre  Amarse  (water  20)  .    .    .  bitter  almond  oil  1. 

Anisi  (alcohol  deod.) anise  oil  10. 

Aurantii    "          " orange  oil  5. 

Aurantii  Comp  (alcohol  deod.) orange  oil  20. 

oils,  anise  0.5;  coriander  2,  lemon  oil  5. 

Camphorce camphor  10. 

Cinnamomi cinnamon  oil  10. 

Gaultheria? wintergreen  oil  5. 

Juniperi juniper  oil  5. 

Juniperi  comp.  (water  30) juniper  oil  0.4 

oils,  caraway,  fennel,  each  0.05 

Lavandulce  (alcohol  deod.) lavender  oil  5. 

Limonis              "          "           ....  lemon  peel  5,  oil  5. 

Menthas  Piperitre peppermint  herb  1,  oil  10. 

Menthse  Viridis spearmint  herb  1,  oil  10. 

i           Myrcix water  38,  oil  of  bay  0.8 

oils,  orange,  pimenta,  each  0.05 

Myristicre nutmeg  (vol.)  oil  5. 

3.  By  digestion:  ft  i,v  vol. 
Spiritus  Phosphor!    .    .    .    absolute  alcohol,  phosphorus  0.12 

4.  By  chemical  reaction  and  solution: 

Spiritus  Ammonias  Aromaticus  .  water  14,  amon.  water         9 

amon.  carb.          3.4 
oils,  lavender,  nutmeg  each  0.1;  lemon  oil         1. 


SPIRITS  345 

fo  by  wt. 

Spirltus  Glonoini nitroglycerin,  C3H5(NO3)3       1. 

5.  By  distillation  and  absorption  (from  amon.  water,  stronger): 
Spiritus  Ammoniac amon.  gas,  NH3     10. 

6.  By  chemical  reaction,  distillation  and  solution: 

Spiritus  yKtheris  Nitrosi ethyl  nitrite       4. 

(yielding  11  times  its  vol.  of  NO.) 

From  reaction  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Sodium  Nitrite  in  Alcohol: 
NaNo24-H2SOi— HNO2+NaHSO4:     C2HDOH+IINO;i=CiH5NO2+H2O. 

The  Nitrous  Ether  is  separated  by  distillation  in  a  glass-retort,  fitted  loosely 
in  a  receiver,  the  entire  neck  of  the  retort  being  kept  cold  with  ice-water,  ac- 
cording to  the  method  noted  under ''Distillation."  The  distillate  is  separated 
from  the  accompanying  alcohol  by  washing  with  ice-cold  water  and  traces  of 
acid  by  agitation  with  an  ice-cold  solution  of  Sodium  Carbonate,  then  freed 
from  adhering  water  by  shaking  it  with  Potassium  Carbonate  and  filtered  in  a 
tared  bottle  containing  the  alcohol. 

Its  strength    of   Ethyl   Nitrite   is   determined  by  measuring  the  volume  <J» 
Nitrogen  Dioxide  (NO)  given  off,  when  decomposed  by  Potassium  Iodide  ar** 
Sulphuric  Acid:  C2H5NO2+KI+H2SO4=C2H5OH4-KHSO44-I+NO, 
in  an  instrument  termed  a  nitrometer. 


346  SYRUPS. 

SYRUPS— SYRUPI. 

The  official  Syrups  are  nearly  saturated  solutions  of  Sugar  in  Water, 
in  which  aromatic  or  medicinal  substances  are  dissolved. 

The  official  Syrup  contains  65  per  cent  by  weight,  85  per  cent  by 
volume,  of  Sugar  (about  7  Ibs.  av.  in  1  Gallon):  with  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  Sugar  the  syrup  undergoes  fermentation  (spoils) . 

The  "Medicated  Syrups"  contain  less  syrup  owing  to  the  solution  of  the 
medicinal  substances  which  usually  reduce  the  solubility  of  the  sugar  in  the 
liquid  from  which  the  syrup  is  prepared.  Syrups  should  be  made  in  small 
quantities  and  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  in  cork-stoppered  bottles  in  order  to  pre- 
serve them. 

The  thirty-two  official  Syrups  are  made  by  different  methods:  By 
solution,  or  mixing  the  medicinal  substance  with  the  syrup;  by  dis- 
solving the  Sugar  in  the  medicinal  solution;  by  extraction  from  the 
drug  and  by  chemical  reaction  and  solution. 

Tru,  methods  of  dissolving  the  Sugar  are  also  of  importance;  in 
some  it  is  dissolved  without  heat,  in  others  with  heat  and  with  some 
others  by  boiling  heat. 

(1)  By  Solution  of  Sugar  in  the  liquid: 

Syrupus  .  Sugar  850  Gm.;  Distilled  Water,  to  make  1000  C.C, 
Without  heat: 

Syrupus  Aurantii  Florum Sugar  850  Gm. 

Orange  Flower  Water  to  make  1000  C.C. 

(2)  By  mixing  a  Solution  with  Syrup:  NO.  ofcc.  imooof 

Syrupus:  Syr.,  or  %  by  vol. 

Acacias mucilage  acacia  25. 

Acidi  Citrici  .    .    .  spirit  lemon  1,  acid  citric  (water  1)  1. 

Krameriae fluid  extract  45. 

Rhei       fluid  extract  (pot.  carb.  1,  water  5)  10. 

spirit  of  cinnamon  (glyc.  5)  0.4 

Rhei  Aromaticus tincture  rhubarb  arom.  15. 

Rosas fluid  extract  12.5 

Rubi fluid  extract  25. 

By  solution  and  filtration: 

Sugar  dissolved  by  heat: 

Syrupus:  %  i,y  -.»/, 

Sarsaparillse  Comp fl.  ext.  sarsaparilla  20. 

fl.  ext.  glycyrrh.  senna,  each       1.5 
oils,  sassafras,  anise,  gaultheria,  each       0.01 

Scillae vinegar  squill  (clarified)  45. 


SYRUPS.  347 

Sugar  dissolved  without  heat:  %  by  vol. 

Ipecacuanha  .    .    .  fl.  ext.  (acid  acetic  1,  glycerin  10)       7. 
Senegae fl.  ext.  (ammonia  water  0.5)     20. 

By  solution,  filtration  with  Calcium  Phosphate: 

Solution  of  Sugar  without  heat: 

Syrupus:  %  by  vol. 

Lactucarii tincture  lactucarium  10 

Scillae  Comp fluid  extract  squill,  senega  each  8. 

(Coxe's  Hive  Syrup)  Antimony  and  potassium  tartrate  0.2 

Tolutanus bals  of  tolu  (sol.  in  alcohol  5)  1. 

Zingiberis fluid  extract  (evap.  of  alcohol)  3. 

(3)  By  extraction: 

Sugar  dissolved  without  heat:  fc  by  vol. 

Syrupus: 

Allii dilute  acetic  acid  20. 

Altheae water  40;  alcohol  3;  glycerin  10  5. 

Amygdalae (bitter  4;  sweet  almond  14)  18. 

orange  flower  water  10. 

Pruni  Virginianae  .*....    glycerin  15,  wild  cherry  ^5. 

By  extraction  with  heat: 
Sugar  dissolved  without  heat: 

Sennae alcohol  15,  ol.  coriand.  0.5     25 

Sugar  dissolved  by  heat 

Picis  Liquidae glycerin  10       7.5 

By  digestion  and  filtration  with  Calcium  Phosphate: 
Sugar  dissolved  without  heat: 
Aurantii alcohol  10,  fresh  exterior  rind       5. 

By  extraction  and  fermentation: 

Sugar  dissolved  by  heat:  %  by  weight. 

Syrupus  Rubi  Idaei filtered  juice     40. 

(4)  Chemical  Syrups: 
By  simple  solution: 

Sugar  dissolved  without  heat:                                            grs   ;n  yc  f,v  roi_ 
Syrupus:                                                                        4c.c.,  i fl.  dr. 

Hypophosphitum  .    .    .    calcium  hypophosphite         3  4.5 

potassium,  sodium  hypophosphite  each         1  1.5 

spirit   lemon  0.5,  acid   hypophos.  dil.  0.2 

Hypophosphitum  cum  Ferro  .    .    ferrous  lactate  1. 
with  potass,  citrate  1,  in  syrup,  hypophosph. 


348  SYRUPS. 

By  chemical  reaction  and  solution: 

Sugar  dissolved  without  heat:  %  vol. 

Syrupus  Calcii  Lactophosphatis  .  .  calcium  lactophosphate  1. 
Calc.  carb.  25  G.  dissolved  in  Acid  Lactic  60  C.C.  and  Water  100 
c.c. ;  add  Acid  Phosphoric  36  c.c.  and  Water  150  c.c. ;  filter,  add 
Water  to  425  c.c.,  then  Orange  flower  water  25  c.c.,  and  in  this 
dissolve  Sugar  700  G.  to  make  1,000  c.c. 

Sugar  dissolved  by  boiling  heat: 

Syrupus  Calcis calcium  saccharate     1. 

Mix  Lime  65  G.  with  Sugar  400  G.,  add  to  500  c.c.  boiling  Water 
and  boil  for  5  minutes;  strain  and  dilute  with  an  equal  volume  of 
Water,  filter,  evaporate  to  700  c.c.  and  when  cool  add  Water  to 
make  1,000  c.c. 

Solution  mixed  with  cold  Syrup: 

%  by  -weight. 

Syrupus  Acidi  Hydriodici absolute  acid,  HI     1. 

Dissolve  Potass.  Iodide  13  G.  and  Potass.  Hypophosphite  i  G.  in 
Water  15  c.c.;  mix  with  solution  of  Acid  Tartaric  12  G.  in  Alcohol 
dilute  25  c.c. ,  separate  the  liquid  from  the  precipitate  by  filtration, 
concentrate  it  by  evaporation  to  50  G.  and  add  to  it  Syrup,  to  make 
1,000  G. 

Syrupus  Ferri  lodidi ferrous  iodide,  FeI0     10. 

To  Iron  wire  25  G.  and  Water  dist.  150  c.c.  add  Iodine  83  G. ;  filter 
the  greenish  colored  liquid,  after  first  heating  it  to  boiling,  into  600 
G.  Syrup,  wash  filter  with  a  mixture  of  25  c.c.  each  of  water  dist 
and  syrup,  then  add  Syrup  to  make  1,000  Gm. 

grs.  in  4  cc.,     %  by  vol. 

Syrupus  Ferri  Quininae  et  Strychnine  z  ji.  dr. 

Phosphatum:  ferric  phosphate,  soluble     ll/2  2. 

quinine  sulphate     2  3. 

strychnine        fa  0.02 

acid  phosphoric     3  4.8 

Dissolve  Ferric  Phosphate  20  G.  in  Water  50  c.c.  with  heat,  add  the 
Acid  Phosphoric  48  c.c.,  Quinine  30  G.  and  Strychnine  2  dcg. ;  stir 
until  dissolved,  filter  the  liquid  into  Glycerin  100  c.c.  and  add  Syrup 
to  make  1,000  c.c. 

HONEYS— MELLITA. 

There  is  only  one  medicated  Honey  official. 

Mel  or  crude  honey  and  Mel  Dcspiimatum  or  clarified  honey  are 
described  under  "Sugars." 

Mel  Rosce. — Honey  of  Rose,  fl.  ext.  rose  12,  clarified  Honey  to 
make  100  G. 


ELIXIRS.  349 

ELIXIRS— KLIXIRIA. 

Elixirs  are  a  class  of  elegant  preparations  similar  to  wines  or  cordials, 
composed  of  Water,  Sugar,  Alcohol  and  Aromatics. 

The  medicinal  substances  are  usually  in  such  proportion  that  an 
ordinary  dose  may  be  contained  in  one  or  two  tcaspoonfuls  of  the 
elixir. 

There  are  but  two  Elixirs  official:  Aromatic  Elixir,  which  serves 
as  a  vehicle  and  one  medicinal,  Elixir  of  Phosphorus.  Formulas  for  the 
most  common  elixirs  are  given  in  the  National  Formulary  (X.  F.). 

Elixir  Aromaticum spirit  of  orange  comp         12.c.c. 

mix  with Alcohol  deodori/ed,  to  make       '250  c.c. 

to  this  solution  add  in  several  portions,  agitating  after 

each  addition syrup       375  c.c. 

and  in  the  same  manner water       375  c.c. 

mix  the  liquid  with  .  precipitated  Calcium  phosphate          15  G. 
and  filter  adding    .    .    .  Water  3,  Alcohol  1,  to  make     1000  c.c. 
This  illustrates  the  method  by  which  Elixirs  are  made.     The  medi- 
cinal ingredients  are  dissolved  in  the  water,  or  alcohol,  as  indicated 
by  their  solubilities,  before  mixing  the  alcoholic  solution  of  oils  with 
the  saccharine  solution. 

Some  salts  and  fluid  extracts  may  be  dissolved  in  or  mixed  with  the 
elixir  itself. 

Elixir  Phosphori:  glyc.  55,  anise  oil  0.2,  sp.  phosphorus       21  c.c. 
mix  by  agitation;  then  add  ....  aromatic  Elixir  to      100  c.c. 
This  Elixir  contains  of  phosphorus  25  mg.  in  100  c.c. ;  or  i  mg.  (^X  grain)  in 
4  c.c.,  i  fl.  drm. 

GLYCERITES— GLYCERITA. 

The  Glycerites  or  "Glyceroles,"  are  solutions  of  substances  in 
Glycerin. 

There  are  six  Glycerites  official  and  they  are  classified,  according  to 
the  methods  of  preparation,  as  follows: 

By  solution:  <-;  /,,,  w'^ 

Glyceritum  Acidi  Carbolici acid  carbolic     20. 

Glyceritum  Vitelli fresh  egg  yolk     45. 

By  solution  with  heat:  ^  fry  ™'t. 

Glyceritum  Acidi  Tannici acid  tannic     20. 

Glyceritum  Amyli water  10,  starch      10. 

By  extraction,  evaporation  and  solution: 

Glyceritum  Hydrastis  .    .    .  hydrastis  (alcohol,  water  25)   100. 
To  the  Hvdrastis  extract  obtained  with  Alcohol,  the  Water  is  added,  the  alco- 


350  OLEATES. 

bol  removed  by  evaporation,  Water  added  to  make  50  c.c.   of  filtered  liquid 
freed  from  insoluble  matter  and  Glycerin  to  100  c.c. 
By  chemical  reaction  and  solution: 

Glyceritum  Boroglycerini;  boroglyceride,  or  glyceryl  borate,  50 
per  cent  by  weight. 

Glycerin  46  G..  heated  to  i5o°C..  Acid  Boric  31  G. ,  added  in  portions  and 
heated  until  reaction  ceases  and  product  weighs  50  G.,  then  add  Glycerin  to 
loo  G. 

OLEATES— OLEATA. 

The  official  Oleates  are  solutions  of  oleates  in  Oleic  Acid. 
They  are  distinct  from  .the  solid  oleates  which  are  made  by  double 
decomposition  of  salts  of  the  metals  and  alkaline  earths  and  sodium 
oleate,  or  Soap.      (See  Soap.) 

Three  are  official,  two  liquid  and  one,  Zinc  oleate,  semi-solid. 
They  are  made  by  incorporating  the  solid  with  the  Oleic  Acid, 
contained    in  a  warm  mortar  and  effecting  solution  with  a  gentle  heat: 

%  by  w't. 

Oleatum  Hydrargyri yellow  mercuric  oxide     20. 

Oleatum  Veratrinse ••'....  veratrine       2. 

Oleatum  Zinci  Oxidi zinc  oxide       5. 

COLLODIONS— COLLODIA. 

These  preparations  are  made  by  adding  medicinal  agents  to  Col- 
lodion (see  Pyroxylin).     They  are  prepared: 
By  solution: 

Collodium  .    .  .  solution  in  ether  75,  alco.  25,  pyroxylin       3. 
Collodium  Flexile    .    .    .  castor  oil  3,  Canada  turpentine       5. 
Collodium  Acidi  Tannici  .    .  alco.  5,  ether  25,  acid  tan.     20. 
By  extraction,  evaporation  and  solution: 

Collodium  Cantharidatum  .  .    .  (flex,  collo.)  cantharides     60. 


The    Mixtures. 


The  second  division  embraces  such  liquid  preparations  as  are  not 
clear  solutions  and  also  solutions  made  by  solvents  other  than  those 
included  in  the  division  of  Solutions  and  ineligible  to  classification 
according  to  the  solvents. 

They  are  represented  by  three  classes:  Mixtures,  Emulsions  and 
Liniments. 

MIXTURES— MISTURA. 

The  four  official  mixtures  are  liquid  preparations,  for  internal  use, 
of  medicinal  substances,  dissolved  or  suspended  in  water,  containing 
sugar,  gum,  or  glycerin.     They  should  be  prepare'd  extemporaneously. 
By  solution:  yc  voi. 

Mistura  Glycyrrhizae  Comp.  .    .  .  pure  extract  glycyrrhiza       3. 
(Brown  Mixture)          Spirit  ether  nitros  3,  wine  antimony       6. 

tinct.  opium  camph.      12. 
syrup  5,  mucilage  acacia  10,  water,  to  100. 

Mistura  Rhei  et  Sodae sodium  bicarbonate       3.5 

fl.  exts.  ipecac  0.3,  rhubarb       1.5 
spirit  peppermint  3.5,  glycerin  35,  water,  to  100. 
By  suspension: 

Mistura  Cretre comp.  chalk  powder     20. 

(Chalk  Mixture)  cinnamon  water  40,  water,  to   100. 

By  chemical  reaction  and  solution: 

Mistura  Ferri  Comp.  .  myrrh,  sugar,  each  1.8,  potass,  carb.       0.8 

triturate  with  rose  water  70,  sp.  lavend.       6. 
(Griffith's  Mixt.)      ferrous  sulph.  0  6  and  rose  water,  to  100. 

EMULSIONS— EMULSA. 

The  Emulsions  are  liquid  preparations  consisting  of  oily,  fatty,  resin- 
ous, or  otherwise  insoluble  substances  suspended  in  watery  liquids  by 
the  intervention  of  gum,  mucilage  or  other  viscid  material  called  emul- 
sifying agents. 

They  may  be  divided  into  (1)  Natural  and  (2)  Artificial  Emulsions. 

With  Natural  Emulsions  are  included  all  products  of  animal  or  vege- 
table origin,  consisting  of  oily  or  resinous  substances  so  combined  with 
gum  or  albumen  as  to  be  readily  miscible  with  water  wit/uu/t  separa- 
tion. 


352  EMULSIONS. 

Of  animal  products,  Milk  and  Egg  Yolk,  are  the  most  typical  emulsions, 
since  their  fat-globules  are  so  finely  divided  and  so  perfectly  distributed  in  the 
watery  liquid  as  to  require  considerable  agitation  to  separate  them  from  the 
albuminous  envelope,  in  order  to  obtain  the  fat.  The  operation  of  "churning" 
milk  to  produce  Butter  is  a  good  illustration  of  this  and  is  the  reverse  of  the 
process  of  emulsification. 

The  milk-juice  of  many  plants,  consisting  of  oil  and  gum  or  albumen,  is  de- 
posited in  fruits  and  seeds  upon  evaporation  of  the  water.  The  nuts,  especially 
Almonds,  are  rich  in  this  mixture,  which,  upon  trituration  with  water,  is  re- 
stored to  its  original  form  of  milk-juice  or  emulsion.  The  official  Almond 
Emulsion  is  a  good  example. 

Associated  with  resin  and  sometimes  with  ethereal  oil,  the  milk-juice  of 
many  plants  exudes  and  dries  into  semi-solid  masses  or  tears.  Examples  of 
these  we  have  in  the  Gum-Resins,  Ammoniac  and  Asafcetida,  which  furnish 
official  emulsions  by  beating  them  in  a  mortar  with  Water. 

The  amount  of  gum  contained  in  a  Gum-Resin  is  not  always  sufficient  to 
emulsify  the  other  constituents,  resin  and  ethereal  oil,  and  it  is  then  necessary 
to  add  gum  artificially  in  order  to  produce  complete  emulsification. 

These  natural  products  are  the  most  perfect  emulsions,  and  to 
simulate  them  is  the  object  of  pharmacal  art.  A  natural  emulsion 
may  be  greatly  diluted  with  water  without  causing  separation  of  the 
oil.  This  is  the  best  test  to  indicate  that  an  emulsion  is  perfect. 

ARTIFICIAL     EMULSIONS. 

These  are  made  by  mixing  the  Oil  with  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
emulsifying  agent,  adding  Water  and  trituration  of  the  mixture  in  a 
Mortar  or  agitation  in  a  Flask. 

There  are  various  methods,  but  these  are  general  rules: 

The  emulsification  of  the  oil  should  be  complete  before  the  mixture  is  made 
up  to  the  required  measure. 

When  Alcoholic  liquids  are  to  be  added,  they  should  first  be  diluted  as 
much  as  possible. 

Salts  should  be  dissolved  before  being  added. 

No  heat  should  be  employed,  as  the  oil  separates  in  an  emulsion  when  heated. 

Emulsions  should  be  freshly  prepared  and  be  preserved  in  a  cold  place. 

The  most  common  Emulsifying  Agents,  in  the  order  of  their  gen- 
eral value,  are: 

Powdered  Gum  Acacia:  with  the  powdered  Gum,  contained  in  a 
capacious  flat-bottomed,  wedgewood  mortar,  the  oil  is  gradually  incor- 
corporated.  To  this  one  and  a  half  times  as  much  Water  as  of  Gum  is 
added  at  once  and  the  mixture  rapidly  triturated  with  a  rotary  motion 
of  the  pestle.  Soon  the  mixture  becomes  stiff  and  assumes  a  milk- 
white  color,  the  pestle-mortar  producing  a  characteristic  "crackling" 
sound,  when  the  emulsification  is  complete.  This  so-called  "mother- 


EMULSIONS.  353 

emulsion"  may  now  be  diluted  to  the  required  measure  and  othei 
substances,  flavors,  etc.,  be  added. 

The  proportion  of  Gum  required  varies  with  different  Oils,  an  oil  rich 
in  gum,  such  as  Castor  Oil,  requiring  less  gum  than  an  oil  poor  12 
natural  gum,  as  Cod  Liver  Oil. 

The  following  proportions  hardly  ever  fail  to  produce  complete 
emulsification:  Gum,  2  parts;  oil,  4  parts;  water,  3  parts. 

Whenever  a  lesser  proportion  of  Gum  is  used  the  water  must  be  de- 
creased in  proportion,  viz.:  One  and  a  half  times  as  much  water  as  o' 
gum  employed. 

The  Ethereal  or  Volatile  Oils  require  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
Gum  than  the  fixed  oils. 

Powdered  Tragacanth  may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  or  in  the  form 
of  mucilage,  but  it  does  not  produce  as  permanent  emulsions  as  does 
gum  acacia. 

Mucilage  of  Acacia  or  of  Irish  Moss  (N.  F.). — These  are  not  as 
satisfactory  as  powdered  gum;  while  they  produce  good  emulsions  the 
division  of  the  oil-globules  is  not  as  thorough  as  in  the  preceding; 
emulsification  being  incomplete,  the  mixture  more  rapidly  separates 
into  a  heavier,  watery  liquid  and  a  lighter,  thick  gelatinous  emul- 
sion, which  requires  thorough  mixing  before  use. 

Extract  of  Malt  is  an  excellent  emulsifying  agent,  when  its  use  is  admissible. 
The  oil  should  be  added  to  the  Malt  Extract,  contained  in  a  capacious  mortar 
and  incorporated  in  small  quantities  at  the  time.  A  good  article  will  emul- 
sify an  equal  volume  of  Cod  Liver  Oil. 

Condensed  Milk  and  Egg-yolk  produce  the  most  perfect  emulsions  and  also 
the  most  palatable,  but  they  rapidly  ferment  and  spoil. 

Glycerin  and  sugar  added  to  emulsions  for  the  purpose  of  preservation  and 
palatability  induce  separation  and  their  use  is  not  advisable. 

Emulsification  "by  intervention"  is  the  best  and  only  reliable 
method  to  be  employed  with  Ethereal  Oils  and  all  substances  of  them- 
selves not  emulsifiable.  It  is  illustrated  in  the  official  Chloroform 
Emulsion. 

Oil  of  Turpentine,  for  example,  is  emulsified  by  dissolving  the  Turpentine  OiJ 
in  twice  its  volume  of  a  bland  fixed  oil  (Almond  Oil),  incorporating  an  equal  weight 
of  powdered  Acacia,  adding  Water  and  proceeding  as  with  an  ordinary  emulsion 

Fancreatin  emulsionizes  fats  in  preparing  them  for  digestion,  but  it  does  not 
produce  a  permanent  emulsion  when  used  artificially.  While,  therefore,  not  s 
reliable  emulsifying  agent,  it  aids  theass'milation  of  oils  and  its  addition  to  emul- 
sions is  sometimes  therapeu'ically  desirable.  As  it  is  only  active  in  alkaline 
media  the  Emulsion  should  be  prepared  with  a  little  Sodium  Bicarbonate. 

The  addition  of  Alkalies  to  emulsions  should  be  avoided.  Soaps  are  not 
Emulsions;  neither  is  the  use  of  Soap-Bark  to  be  recommended. 


354  LINIMENTS. 

The  four  official  Emulsions  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
Natural  Emulsions: 

From  Gum  resin  triturated  with  water:  <fc  vol. 

Emulsum  Ammoniaci ammoniac      4. 

Emulsum  Asafoetidae asafetida,  in  select  tears       4. 

From  seed  by  intervention: 

Emulsum  Amygdalae sugar  3,  acacia  powd.        1. 

sweet  almond       6. 
Artificial  emulsion  by  intervention: 

Emulsum  Chloroformi  .    .    .  tragacanth  powd.  1.5,  chlor.        4. 
expressed  oil  almond  6,  water,  to  100. 

Shake  Chloroform  and  tragacanth  together  in  a  dry  bottle,  incorporate  25  c.c. 
Water,  then  the  Almond  oil,  in  small  quantities,  and  finally  in  the  same  way 
add  the  remainder  of  the  Water. 

LINIMENTS— LINIMENTA. 

The  Liniments  are  liquid  preparations  for  external  use  consisting  of 
solutions  of  oily  or  resinoiis  constituents  in  Alcohol  or  Oils;  or  mix- 
tures of  liquid  Soaps.     The  nine  official  are  prepared  : 
By  solution: 
Linimentum:  %  by  vol. 

Belladonnas fl.  ext.  belladonna  95,  camphor       5. 

Chloroformi soap  liniment  70,  chloroform     30. 

Saponis  Mollis   .    .    .   alcohol  30,  lavender  oil  2,  soft  soap     65. 
Sinapis  Comp.  .    .  .  fl.  ext.  mezereum  20,  mustard  oil  vol.        3. 
camphor  6,  castor  oil  15,  alcohol,  to  100. 
By  solution  with  heat: 

Linimentum:  f0  by  w't. 

Camphorse cotton-seed  oil  80,  camphor     20. 

%  by  vol. 

Saponis camphor  4.5,  soap       7. 

rosemary  oil  1,  alcohol  75,  water,  to  100. 

%  by  w't. 

Terebinthinae resin  cerate  65,  turpentine  oil     35. 

By  saponification: 

Linimentum:  % 

Ammoniae  .  .  cotton-seed  oil  60,  alcohol  5,  ammonia  water 
Calcis linseed  oil  50,  lime  solution 


Products  by  Extraction. 

The  preparations  made  by  extraction  are  represented  by  ten  classes 
of  which  seven  are  liquid,  one  semi-solid,  the  Extracts;  one  solid,  tne 
Resins,  and  one  semi-liquid,  the  Oleoresins. 

With  reference  to  the  Menstrua,  they  are  divided  into  aqueous, 
acetous,  vinous,  alcoholic  and  ethereal  preparations. 

The  aqueous  include  the  Mucilages,  Infusions  and  Decoctions. 
MUCILAGES— MUCILAGINES. 

These  are  made  by  extracting  the  soluble  principles  of  mucilaginous 
Drugs  with  Water. 

When  made  from  Gums  completely  soluble  they  may  be  classed  as 
solutions.  They  are  made  by  dissolving  the  substance  in  water  and 
rejecting  undissolved  matter  by  straining: 

Mucilago   (gen.-inis):  %  by -aft. 

or  vol. 

Acaciae gum  arabic         34. 

Tragacanthae  (glycerin  18)  tragacanth 6. 

Sassafrasae  Medull sassafras  pith  2. 

By  digestion: 

Mucilago  Ulmi slippery  elm  bark  6. 

The  two  last-mentioned  should  be  freshly  made  when  wanted. 

INFUSIONS— INFUSA. 

Unless  otherwise  directed  to  be  prepared  by  the  general  process: 
Of  the  Drug  coarsely  comminuted  5  Gm.,  Boiling  Water  100  c.c. 

Pour  the  Boiling  Water  on  the  Drug  in  a  suitable  vessel,  provided  \vith  a 
cover,  and  let  it  stand  for  half  an  hour,  strain  and  add  enough  Water  through 
the  strainer  to  make  100  c.c. 

Caution. — The  strength  of  Infusions  of  powerful  drugs,  i.  e.  Ipecac, 
should  be  especially  prescribed. 

The  following   Infusions  are  official,   being  prepared  by   different 
strengths  and  by  other  processes  than  directed  in  the  general  process 
Infusum:  Parts. 

Digitalis  .    .  digitalis  1.5;  alcohol  10;  cinnamon  water  15; 

water  to  make         100 
Sennne  Comp.  (Black  Draught)  .    .  .  senna  (fennel  2 )  G; 

manna,  mag.  sulph.,  of  each  12.  water  to  make          100 


356  INFUSIONS. 

By  Percolation  without  Heat.  ^  by  vol. 

Infusum  Cinchona;   ....    acid  atom,  sulph.  1,  cinchona         6. 
Pruni  Virginiana: wild  cherry         4. 

DECOCTIONS— DECOCTA. 

Unless  otherwise  directed  Decoctions  are  prepared  according  to 
the  following  general  process: 

Of  the  drug  coarsely  comminuted 5  Gm. 

Boiling  water  to 100  c.c. 

Pour  the  ('old  Water  on  the  I)rug,  contained  in  a  suitable  vessel  provided 
with  a  cover,  bring  it  to  a  boil  and  let  it  boil  for  15  minutes.  Let  it  cool  to 
40  C.  (104  F. ),  express,  strain  and  add  cold  water  through  the  strainer  to 
make  100  c  c. 

Caution  as  with  infusions. 

The  following  Decoctions  are  official,  as  being  made  of  different 
strengths  and  methods  than  directed  in  the  general  process: 

Decoctum:  <f0  by  vol. 

Cetrarire Iceland  moss         5. 

Sarsaparilla;  Comp mezereum  1,  sarsaparilla       10. 

glycyrrhiza,  sassafras,  guaiac  wood,  of  each         2. 

The  Cetraria  is  macerated  with  cold  water  for  half  an  hour  and  the  expressed 
liquid  rejected  before  it  is  boiled  with  the  water.  In  the  Sarsaparilla  Decoc- 
tion, the  Sarsaparilla  and  Guaiac  wood  are  boiled-  separately  for  half  an  hour, 
and  then  the  other  drugs  are  macerated  in  the  mixture  for  two  hours  before  it 
is  strained. 

VINEGARS— ACETA. 

The  Vinegars  are  made  by  extraction  with  Dilute  Acetic  Acid. 

By  maceration: 
Acetum:  %  by  vol. 

Opii  (Black  Drop) sugar  20,  nutmeg  3,  opium       10. 

Scillrc squill        10. 

The  Vinegars  of  Lobelia  and  Sanguinaria  (80)  were  of  the  same  strength. 

WINES— VINA. 

The  Wines  are  made  by  solution,  by  maceration  or  by  maceration 
and  percolation.  The  Menstrua  is  White  Wine  to  which  from  10  to 
15  per  cent  of  Alcohol  is  added  to  aid  in  the  extraction  and  in  the 
preservation.  There  are  ten  Wines  official. 

Those  made  by  solution- 
Vinum:  Parts. 

Antimonii antimony,  potass,  tart.  (sol.  water)       0.4 

Ferri  Amarum iron,  quinine  citrate,  soluble       5. 

(Bitter  Wine  of  Iron)          tinct.  orange  peel  15,  syrup       30. 


WINES.  357 

Vinum  Ferri  Citratis iron  ammonium  citrate  4. 

tinct.  orange  peel  15,  syrup  10,  wine  to  100. 

Ipecacuanhas alcohol  10,  fl.  ext.  ipecac  10. 

By  maceration: 

Vinum  Opii    ....  cinnamon,  cloves,  each  1,  opium  10. 
By  maceration  and  percolation: 

Vinum  Colchici  Radicis colchicum  root  40. 

"       Colchici  Seminis "       seed  15. 

"       Ergotae ergot  15. 

The  Natural  Wines:  Vinum  Album  and  Vinum  Rubrum  are  de- 
scribed under  "Products  by  Fermentation." 

TINCTURES— TIXCTUR/E 

The  Tinctures  are  liquid  preparations  made  by  the  extraction  of 
Drugs  with  menstrua  of  Alcohol  and  Water  in  various  proportions. 

They  are  prepared  by  maceration  and  filtration;  also  by  percolation 
and  a  few  by  solution: 

By  maceration  and_/27/ 'ration,  those  containing  resins  and  oleoresins, 
Musk,  and  tinctures  of  fresh  herbs;  in  a  few  instances  with  heat,  the 
Tinctures  of  Opium,  Tincture  of  Quillaja  and  Tincture  Strophanthus. 

By  percolation,  when  prepared  from  dried  vegetable  drugs,  i.  e., 
barks,  leaves,  roots,  etc.,  usually  after  brief  maceration. 

By  solution,  mixing  a  solution  (chloride  iron),  or  dissolving  a  solid 
in  alcohol  (iodine,  ext.  mix  vomica). 

Tinctures  are  the  simplest  form  of  alcoholic  products  by  extraction.  From  a 
Tincture  all  the  other  preparations  may  be  progressively  produced,  through 
concentration  by  evaporation,  as  follows: 

Fluid  Extract  representing  a  uniform  drug-strength,  viz.:   i  Gram  in  i  c.c. 

Exit-act  or  "solid  extract,"  a  semi-solid  mass  of  pilular  consistence  of  no  uni- 
form drug-strength;  or  assayed  and  powdered  with  diluent,  to  represent  a  cer- 
tain alkaloidal  strength  (Opium,  Nux  Vomica). 

Abstract  or  "powdered  extract"  by  incorporation  of  Sugar  of  Milk  with  the 
extract  to  represent  one-half  the  weight,  or  twice  the  strength  of  the  drug. 

Rtsins,  separation  of  the  resinous  constituents,  by  precipitation  in  Water,  of  a 
concentrated  alcoholic  Tincture. 


358 


TINCTURES. 


The  Tinctures  range  in  strength  (excluding  the  compound  tinctures) 
from  5  to  50  per  cent.     They  are  all  made  by  volume. 


SYLLABUS    OF    THE    OFFICIAL    TINCTURES. 

IOO 

Menstrua  for 
c.c.,  or  vol.   %. 

Part  of  Plant 
or  Drug. 

Water 

Alco- 
hol. 

Containing  f  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Cantharidis  

insect 
fruit 
secretion, 
seed 

IOO 

95 
50 
65 

- 

"         Capsici  

5 
50 
35 

'  '         Moschi  

'  '         Strophanthi   

Containing  7  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  lodi  

non-met. 

IOO 

Containing  10  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Arnica?  Radicis  

root 

fruit 
herb 
bark 
stigma 
insp.  juice 
leaves 
insp.  juice 

wood 
root 
rhizome 
root 
balsam 
fruit 

35 

40 
50 
35 

20 
50 
2O 
50 
50 
80 

65 
30 

35 

35 

35 

65 

IOO 

Go 
50 
65 
75 
50 
65 
50 
50 

20 

35 

60 

65 
65 

IOO 

65 

Glyc.  5. 
Glyc.  15. 

Glyc.  10. 
Sugar  20. 

"          Brvonise  

"         Calumbae    

"         Cardamomi    

"         Chirata?  

"         Cinnamomi  (zeyl) 

"         Croci  

"         Kino  

"         Matico  

'  '         Opii      (see  note)  

"         Opii  deod   '  '       

"          Quassias  

"         Rhei  (cardamom  2)  ... 
"         Serpentariae     

"         Sumbul         

Tolutana     

"         Vanilla?  

Containing  i^  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Belladonna?  

leaves 
herb 
seed 
herb 
rhiz. 
leaves 
seed 
rhiz. 
bulb 
seed 

5° 

40 
50 
35 
50 

40 
25 
50 

50 

IOO 

60 
50 

65 
50 

IOO 

60 

75 
5° 

Ac.  Acet  2. 

"         Cannabis  Indicae  

"         Colchici  

'  '          Digitalis  

"          Gelsemii  

"         Hvoscyami  

"         Phvsostigmatis   

"         Sanguinariae  

Scilla?  

"         Stramonii  Seminis.  .  .  . 

Assayed  Tinctures. — Two  of  the  most  important  Tinctures  are  re- 
quired to  be  of  certain  specified  alkaloidal  strengths  and  their  classi- 
fication according  to  their  respective  drug-strengths  is  therefore  only 
approximately  correct. 

Tinctura  Opii.- — Should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  represent  from  1.3  to  1.5  per 
cent  of  crystallized  morphine,  the  proportion  obtained  from  10  per  cent  of 
Opii  pulvis,  U.  S. 


TINCTURES. 


359 


Tinctura  Nucis  Vomicce. — Made  by  solution  of  2  per  cent  of  the  official  Ex- 
tract, representing  about  ten  times  its  weight  of  the  drug;  the  Tincture,  there- 
fore, being  in  the  20  per  cent  class.  The  Tincture  contains  0.3  per  cent  total 
alkaloids.  (See  Alkaloids.) 


SYLLABUS    OF    TINCTURES    (CONTINUED). 

Menstrua  for 
too  Parts  by  vol. 

Part  of  Plant 
or  Drug. 

Water    A,lc.°- 
hoi. 

Containing  20  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Arnicac  Florum         .  .  . 

flowers 
gum-resin 
rind 

bals-resin 
herb 
rhizome 
bark 
fruit 
excresc. 
resin 

strobiles 
rhizome 
root 
herb 
gum-resin 
seed 
root 
bark 
rhizome 

50       50 

IOO 

Glyc.     7.5. 
Glyc.  10. 
sp.  am.  ar. 

sp.  am.  ar. 

"         Asafo3tidae  

"         Aurantii  Amari,  

40       60 

IOO 

"         Aurantii  Uulcis  

"          Henzoini  

IOO 

"         Calendula? 

"          Cimicifugac       

IOO 

"         Cinchonas  

25     07.5 

IOO 

"          Cubebas  

Gall.'c  

QO 

"          Guaiaci  

....     IOO 

"         Guaiaci  Ammon    

"          1  lumuli.         

50     50 
50     50 
50    50 

5°      50 

IOO 

"          11  ydrasfis          

"          Krameriac  

Lobeliae  

"          Myrrhas  

"         NucisVomicae(see  note) 
"         i'vrethri  

25       75 

IOO 

"         Quillajre  

60       40 
25   |    75 

"         Valerianae  

"         Valerianas  Ammon.  .  .  . 
"          Zingiberis  

.     IOO 

i 

Containing  25  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Ferri  Chloridi    

solution 

75 

Containing  jj  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Aconiti    

tuber 

30      70 

Containing  jo  per  icnt.  — 
Tinctura  Veratri  Viridis  

rhizome 

IOO 

Containing  50  per  cent.  — 
Tinctura  Lactucarii  . 

resin 

2S       so         Give.  2S. 

Tincturoi  Herbarum  Recentium — Tinctures  of  Fresh  Herbs,  or 
"Green  Tinctures." 

When  not  otherwise  directed  to  be  prepared  by  the  following 
General  Formula: 

Take  of  the  fresh  herb,  bruised  or  crushed,  50  Gm.;  macerate  for 
14  days  in  Alcohol  100  c.c.;  express  the  liquid  and  filter. 


360 


FLUID 


Compound  tinctures  (showing  parts  of  drug  in 

100). 

Water 

Alco. 

Glyc. 

c 

7-5 
ev.q.s. 

IOO 

4 
10 

10 

Tinctura: 
Aloes    

!  aloes     

10.       \ 
20.       f 
10.       ) 
10.       1 
10.       ) 
12. 

4-.    C 

2'     ( 

2.      \ 

0.5  ) 

10.       | 

5-     f 

10.       1 

8- 

2.       ) 
10.      ) 

1  1 

100.      \ 
10.      / 

0.8] 

0.2 

2. 
I. 
I. 

0-5 
0.4] 
0.4 
0.4 
0-4 
20.      1 

4-     1 
4-     i 

2-      J 
10.     ] 

i 
i.  .1 

50 
25 

50 

75 

IOO 

50 
50 
85 
60 

73 

48 

50 
50 

Aloes  ct  Myrrhac     

licorice  root.  .  .  . 
(  aloes  

1  myrrh  

Benzoini  Comp   

licorice  root.  .  .  . 

j  aloes  2,  benzoin  . 
I  storax  8,  tolu.  .  . 
i  cardamom  

Cardamomi  Comp  . 
Catechu  Comp        

50 
50 
7.50 

40 

cinnamon    

cara'y  i,  cochin'l 
(  catechu   

Cinchonae  Comp   - 

\  cinnamon  
red  cinchona.  .  . 
bitter  orange.  .  . 
serpentaria   .... 

Gentianae  Comp  - 

gentian  

bitter  orange.  .  .  . 
cardam  

Ipecacuanhas  et  Opii  *\ 

r  tinct.  opii  deod. 
L  fl.  ext.  ipecac.  .  . 
(  oil  lavend  

Lavandulse  Comp     < 

27 

48 
40 

40 

oil  rosmar  

cinnnamon.  .  .  . 

nutmeg 

Opii  Camphorata  < 

red  saunders.  .  . 
cloves  

opium  p 

acid  benzoic.  .  .  . 

Rhei  Aromatica  • 

oil  anise   . 

rhubarb 

cinnam  

Rhei  Dulcis  • 

cloves  
nutmeg  

[  rhubarb  

glycyrrh  

cardamom  

FLUID    EXTRACTS— EXTRACTA    FLUIDA. 

Fluid  extracts  may  be  defined  as  a  class  of  concentrated  tinctures  of 
such  strength  as  to  represent  the  drug  volume  for  weight. 

The  fluid  extracts  of  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  previous  to  1880,  represented 
one  grain  of  drug  in  one  minim,  or  one  troy  ounce  in  one  fluid  ounce. 
In  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  1880,  the  standard  adopted  was  one  Gram  in  one 
cubic  centimeter,  and  this  strength  has  been  retained  as  the  standard 
for  the  U.  S.  Ph.,  1890. 

Fluid  extracts  are  made  by  percolation,  maceration  or  digestion  and 


EXTRACTS.  361 

expression.  Except  on  a  large  scale,  or  by  fractional  'percolation,  they 
cannot  be  prepared  by  simple  percolation  without  evaporation  to  con- 
centrate the  percolate  to  the  required  measure. 

Fractional  or  repercolation,  or  simultaneous  fractional  percolation,  by  em- 
ployment of  which  the  use  of  heat  for  concentrating  the  percolate  is  avoided, 
may  be  used  to  advantage,  when  the  quantity  operated  upon  is  sufficiently  large 
to  warrant  the  greater  time  and  attention  required. 

The  following  are  the  processes  employed: 

A.  In  proceeding  to  percolate  one  hundred  Grams  of  the  drug,  according  to 
directions,  the  first  80  to  go  cubic  centimeters  are  reserved,  and  percolation 
continued  until  the  exhaustion  is  completed.  The  weak  percolate  is  evaporated 
to  a  soft  extract  (the  alcohol  being  recovered)  and  dissolved  in  the  reserved 
percolate.  Sufficient  of  the  menstruum  is  then  added  to  make  the  product 
measure  100  c.c. 

The  official  proportions  for  menstrua  expressed  in  percentages  by 
volume  (cubic  centimeters),  are  given  in  the  subjoined  tables: 

MENSTRUA  -  ALCOHOL     (94    PER    CENT    BY    VOLUME.) 


Extractum  Fluidum.                  Drug.  Extractum  Fluidum.                 -Drug. 

Aromaticum  ...........  aromatic  Gelsemii  ..............  root. 

powder.  Grindeliae  .............  herb. 

Buchu  ................  leaves.  Iridis  ................  rhizome. 

Calami    ..............  root.  Lupulini  .............  glands. 

Cannabis  Ind  .........  herb.  Mezerii  ...............  bark. 

Capsici   ..............  fruit.  Sabinae  ..............  tops. 

Cimicifugae  ...........  root.  Veratri  Viridis  ........  rhizome. 

Cubebae  ...............  berry.  Xanthoxyli  ............  bark. 

Cusso  ................  flores'nce  Zingiberis  ............  rhizome. 

MENSTRUA  -  ALCOHOL    80;  WATER    20,     IN     100    C.C. 

Extractum  Fluidum.                 Drug.  Extractum  Fluidum.                 Drug. 

Belladonna?  ...........  root.  Khei  .................  root. 

Eriodictyi  ............  herb.  Serpentariae  ..........  rhizome. 

Podophylli  ............  rhizome. 

MENSTRUA  -  ALCOHOL    75;    WATER    25. 

Extractum  Fluidum.                 Drug.  Extractum  Fluidum.                 Drug. 

Leptandrae  ............  rhizome. 

Arnicae  ...............  root.  Matico  ...............  leaves. 

Aconiti  ...............  root.  Scillae  ................  bulb. 

Calumbac  .............  root.  Valerianac  ............  rhizome, 

Eucalypti  .............  leaves.  Viburni  Opuli  .........  bark. 

Guaranas  ..............  seed  Viburni  Prunifolii  .....  bark. 

Ipecacuanha?  ..........  root.  Stramonii  .........  „  .  .seed. 

MENSTRUA  -  ALCOHOL    G7;    WATER    33. 

Extracted  Fluidum.                 Drug.  Extractum  Fluidum.                 Drug. 

Aurantu  Amari  ........  rind.  Digitalis  .............  leaf. 

Chiratae  ..............  herb.  Hyoscyami  ............  leaf. 

Colchici  Kadicis  ......   corm.  Menispermi  ...........  rhizome. 

Colchic:  Serrpnis  ......  se»d.  Phvtolaccse.  .          .....  root. 


FLUID 


MENSTRUA   DILUTED   ALCOHOL;  ALCOHOL   50;    WATER   50,  IN    100    C.C- 


Extractura  Fluidum.  Drug. 

Asclepiadis root. 

Chimaphilse herb. 

Cocae leaf. 

Convallarise rhizome. 

Cypripedii rhizome. 

Dulcamara? twigs. 

Eupatorii herb. 

Gentianae  root. 

Lobelias...  ..herb. 


Extractum  Fluidum.  Drug. 

Pilocarpi leaves. 

Rumicis root. 

Spigeliae  rhizome. 

Stillingiae root. 

Lappae root. 

Rhamni  Purshianae.. .  .bark. 

Scoparii tops. 

Scutellariae herb. 

Sennae leaves. 

Taraxaci...  ..root. 


MENSTRUA ALCOHOL    38;    WATER    62. 

Extractum  Frangulse  Fluid,  .bark. 

MENSTRUA ALCOHOL   33;    WATER   67. 

Extractum  Quassias  Fluid,  .wood. 
Sarsaparillas root. 


MENSTRUA,    ALCOHOL   AND    GLYCERIN. 


Extractum  Fluidum.  Drug. 

Cinchonae bark 

Gossypii  radicis root  bark. 


Glyc.  in  100  c  c. 

20 

25 


DILUTED   ALCOHOL   AND   GLYCERIN. 


Extractum  Fluidum.  Drug. 

Geranii    rhizome 

Kramerias root.  . . . 

Rhois  Glabrae leaves. . 

Rosae  . .  .  .leaves  . . 


Glyc.  in  100  c.  .c. 
10 

20 


10 


MENSTRUA  ALCOHOL,    WATER    AND    GLYCERIN 
IN    VARIOUS    PROPORTIONS. 

DRUG. 

MENSTRUA  IN    IOO  CC. 

Alco. 

Water 

Glyc. 

Extractum  Fluidum 
Apocyni  ...        

root, 
bark, 
leaves 
rhiz. 
root, 
r'tb'k. 

leaves 
bark. 

65 
60 

35 
60 
72 
Go 

3° 
20 

50 

25 
30 
55 
30 
18 
30 
60 

5o 
40 

10 

10 

IO 
10 
IO 
IO 

IO 

30 

10 

Aspidospermatis          ....        ...        

Hamamelidis  

Hydrastis  

Pareiras  

Rubi      

Sarsaparillae  Comp  Sarsaparilla  75 

glycyrrhi/a  12,  sassafras  10,  mezereum  3 
Uvre  Ursi  

Menstruum:    (i)  Water  30  c.c.,  Glycerin  10   c.c.  ; 
(2)  Alcohol  85  c.c.,  Water  15  c.c  

Extractum  Pruni  Virginians  Fluidum  

B.  In  some  drugs,  the  active  principles  are  extracted  with  difficulty  or  liable 
to  dissociation  by  the  heat  employed  in  the  evaporation  of  the  weak  percolate. 
In  such  cases  an  adit  is  added  to  the  menstrua  which  combines  with  the  alka- 
loid and  forms  salts  much  more  soluble  and  not  so  readily  volatilized.  To  this 
Class  belong: 


EXTRACTS. 


363 


EXTRACTUM  FLUIDUM. 

DRUG. 

MENSTRUA  IN    TOO  CC. 

Alco. 

Water. 

Acid 
Acet. 

Conn                 ... 

fruit 
sclerot 
seed, 
rhiz. 

75 
5° 
75 
75 

25 
50 
25 
25 

2 
2 

5 
5 

Ergotoe    

Nucis  Vomicae1    

Sanguinariai  

C.  When  the  active  principles  are  of  acid  character  and  extracted  with  dif- 
ficulty by  the  use  of  ordinary  solvents  (neutral  menstrua)  or  are  liable  to  gela- 
tinize, alkaline  menstrua  are  employed  for  their  extraction. 

Two  of  this  class  are  official: 


EXTRACTUM  FLUIDUM. 

DRUG. 

MENSTRUA    IN    IOO    C.C. 

Alco. 

Water 

Amon.  Water 

Glycyrrt 
Senega;  . 

lizae  

root, 
root. 

30 

75 

65 

20 

5 
5 

D.  When  the  active  principles  are  readily  soluble  in  water  and  the  drug  is 
very  cellular,  extraction  is  effected  by  digestion  and  expression.  This  method 
must  be  applied  only  to  drugs  whose  principles  are  not  impaired  by  the  heat 
necessary  to  concentrate  the  expressed  liquid  to  the  required  measure. 

To  exhaust  drugs  with  water,  maceration  and  expression  are  always  neces- 
sary, because  the  cell-walls  swell,  and  the  water  acts  upon  starch  and  gummy 
matter,  thus  impeding  the  flow  in  percolation.  A  greater  proportion  of  sol- 
vent is  also  necessary  than  in  the  process  of  percolation,  hence  the  necessity  for 
the  evaporation  of  the  liquid  extract.  Since  water,  especially  when  hot,  ex- 
tracts matter  causing  fermentation,  the  liquid  is  evaporated  to  about  twice  the 
bulk  of  the  drug  employed  and  Alcohol  added  so  that  the  liquid  may  contain 
about  25  per  cent  of  alcohol  by  which  the  undesirable  principles  are  precipitated. 
The  easily  fermentable  substances  are  insoluble  in  liquids  containing  20  per 
cent,  or  above,  of  alcohol,  and  are  precipitated  and  freed  from  the  extract  by 
nitration.  The  alcohol  also  acts  as  a  preservative,  since  aqueous  solutions  of 
vegetable  substances  do  not  keep  for  any  length  of  time. 
Two  of  this  class  are  official: 

Extractum  Castanece  Fluidum glycerin  10,  leaves 

Tritici  Fluidum rhizome 

Extractum     Ergotoi    Purificatum    or    "liquid    ergot,"    Ergotin,  and 
Extractum  Sennaj  Fluid.  Aquosum  may  be  prepared  by  this  process. 


'The  concentration  is  adjusted  so  that  the  Fluid  Extract  shall  contain  1.5 
per  tent  of  total  alkaloids  and  that  10  c.c.  shall  represent  i  Gm.  extract  nux 
vomica. 


364  EXTRACTS. 

EXTRACTS— EXTRACTA. 

Extracts,  or  "solid"  extracts  as  they  are  termed,  to  distinguish 
them  from  fluid  extracts,  are  the  soluble  active  principles  of  vegetable 
drugs,  concentrated  by  evaporation  to  a  soft  solid,  or  a  plastic  mass 
of  pilular  consistence. 

The  strength  of  an  extract  depends  upon  the  amount  of  the  crude 
drug  it  represents.  Hence,  the  smaller  the  percentage  of  extract  ob- 
tained from  a  drug,  the  greater  the  relative  strength  of  the  extract; 
provided  that  the  drug  is  exhausted  with  menstrua  adapted  to  secure 
all  the  active  principles  in  this  form. 

Thus  the  extracts  of  different  drugs  are  as  many  times  stronger  than  the 
drug,  as  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  drug  at  100  by  the  percentage 
yield.  For  example:  Podophyllum  yields  10  percent  of  extract;  then  IOO-T- 
10=10,  that  is,  the  extract  is  ten  times  as  strong  as  the  drug  and  the  Fluid  Ex- 
tract, or  that  o.i  of  the  extract  represents  i  Gm.  of  the  Drug  or  i  c  c.  of  the 
Fluid  Extract. 

The  yield  of  extract  is  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  menstrua 
employed;  with  a  few  drugs  like  Rhubarb  the  quality  of  the  drug 
sometimes  governs  the  yield,  the  least  percentage  being  obtained  from 
the  poorest  quality. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  more  aqueous  the  menstrua  the  greater  the 
yield  of  extract;  conversely,  the  more  alcoholic  the  menstrua  the 
smaller  the  yield  of  extract.  To  obtain  the  extracts,  therefore,  of 
official  strength  it  is  necessary  to  use  official  menstrua  in  the  extrac- 
tion. 

The  33  official  extracts  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 

1.  Those  made  by  extraction  with  Alcoholic  menstrua,  by  percola- 
tion and  concentration  to  pilular  consistence,  including  those  made 
by  addition  of  acid  (Conium)  and  evaporation  from   Fluid  Extract 
(Ergot). 

2.  By  extraction  with  Water,   hot  or  cold   infusion,  digestion  or 
contusion    of  fresh   drug,  and  concentration  to   pilular   consistence, 
including  one  each  made  by: 

Addition  of  acid  (Colchicum),  of  Alkali  (Glycyrrhiza,  pure)  and 
Extract  Glycyrrhiza,  commercial,  not  prepared  in  the  retail  pharmacy. 

3.  Powdered  Extracts,  Colocynth,  and  those  made  by  addition  of 
powders  to  the  extracts  including: 

4.  Assayed  Extracts  of  Xux  A'omica  and  Opium  and 
One  Compound  Extract,  of  Colocynth. 

The  drug  strength  of  these  and  their  respective  doses  estimated  on 
their  drug  strengths  may  be  presented  as  follows: 


EXTRACTS. 


365 


EXTRACTUM. 

Menstrua 
100  c.c. 

ft 
Yield. 

Parts  of 
Drup  in 
i  of  Ex- 
tract. 

Dose  of 
Drue. 
Grains. 

Dose  of 
Ex- 
tract. 
Grains. 

Alco- 
hol. 

Water 

Aconiti  (rad)                      

100 

50 
67 

IOO 

100 

20 

20 
20 
IO 
1O 

16 

25 
25 
20 
2O 
17 
M 
15 
15 

18 

2-5 
10 

35 
15 
30 

5 
5 
5 

IO 
IO 

6 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 

7 
6 
6 

5J/2 

40 

10 

3 
6 
3 

I 

* 

Arnica"1                                     

5° 
33 

Belladonna;  Fol.  Alcoholic  

3 

10 
10 

30 

4 

2 
30 
30 

3 

7 
6 
6 

10 

5 

10 

30 
3" 

* 
I 

I 

5 
i 

\ 
6 
6 

i 

i 
i 
i 

2 

i 
I 
IO 

i 
10 

Cannabis  Indicre  

Cimicifugae  

Cinchonas  

75 
5° 
67 
from 
67 
67 

IOO 
100 

50 

75 

IOO 

80 
80 
50 
30 

25 
50 
33 
Fl.Ex 

33 
33 

Conii  (ac.  acetic  2)    

Digitalis  

Ergotae         

Euonymi             .        

Hyoscyami  

Iridis        .                .            .        

Talapa? 

Juglandis       

50 
25 

Leptandrac        .    .        

Physostigmatis        

Podophylli  .                    .    .        

20 
20 
50 

75 

Rhei  

Stramonii  (seed)  

UVCE  Ursi  

The  number  of  Grams  of  Drug  represented  by  i  Gm.  of  Extract  corre- 
sponds equally  to  the  number  of  grains  of  Drug  represented  by  i  grain  of  the 
extract  and  the  proportion  is  the  same  in  any  other  denomination  of  weights. 

By  extraction  with  Water: 


EXTRACTUM. 


By  hot  infusion: 
Aloes  (aquosa) 

By  infusion,  coagulation  by  boiling: 

Gentians 

Haematoxyli 

Krameriag 

Quassias 

By  percolation  with  Dilute  Acetic  Acid: 
Colchici I     35 

By  percolation  with  Amon.  Water: 
Gl ycyrrhizae,   pur 40 

By  insuccation  from  fresh  drug: 
Taraxaci J     30 


Parts  of  Dose  of  Dose  of 

7C.,  Dr"Si,ln  Drug,  i  Ex- 
Yield,  i  of  Ex-  Grains.!  ^ract. 
;  tract.  ;  Grains. 


Gm. 


Powdered  extracts: 

By  extraction  with  Dilute  Alcohol: 
Extractum  Colocynthidis  .  . 


By  incorporation  with  other  substances  :  /«  foo 

Extractum  Colocynthidis  Compositum    ....    ext.  colocynth     16 

aloes,  purif  50,  scammony  resin,  soap  powd.,  each     14 

cardamom  6,  alcohol  to   100 


366  ABSTRACTS. 

To  the  Aloes,  fused  on  a  water-bath,  the  Alcohol  is  added,  then  the  Soap, 
Colocynth  Extract  and  Scammony  Resin;  heat  until  the  mixture  becomes 
brittle  upon  cooling;  thoroughly  incorporate  the  Cardamom,  allow  the  mixture 
to  become  cold  and  then  reduce  it  to  powder. 

Assayed  Extracts. — By  extraction,  concentration  by  evaporation 
and  addition  of  Sugar  of  Milk  to  represent  a  certain  alkaloidal  strength 
in  the  powdered  extract: 

By  Percolation  with  alcohol  75,  water  25,  acid,  acetic  5. 

Extractum  Nucis  Vomicse — contains  15  per  cent  of  total  alkaloids, 

i  represents  about  10  of  drug. 
By  extraction  with  water. 

Extractum  Opii — contains   18  per  cent  of  crystallized  morphine; 
i  represents  2  of  normal  moist  opium,  about  one  and  a  half  of 
Opii  pulvis. 

The  preparation  of  these,  the  processes  of  assay  and  their  strengths  related 
to  their  respective  Drugs,  have  been  described  under  the  Alkaloidal  Drugs  in  the 
preceding  Lecture. 

ABSTRACTS— ABSTRACTA. 

A  class  of  powdered  extracts,  prepared  from  the  extracts  by  the 
addition  of  sufficient  milk  sugar  to  make  the  product  represent  one- half 
its  weight  of  the  crude  drug,  was  official  in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  1880,  under 
the  title  of  Abstracts. 

The  Abstracts  have  a  uniform  relation  to  the  drug,  viz:  One  grain 
represents  two  grains  of  the  drug,  just  as  the  fluid  extracts  have  the 
uniform  relation  of  representing  the  drug  measure  for  weight. 

In  preparing  an  abstract  the  drug  is  exhausted  with  proper  men- 
struum and  the  extract  obtained;  this,  while  yet  warm,  is  incorporated 
with  its  weight  of  milk  sugar  (powdered)  and  set  in  a  warm  place. 
When  sufficiently  dry  the  mixture  is  powdered  and  enough  milk  sugar 
added  to  bring  the  product  to  one-half  the  weight  of  the  drug  em- 
ployed. Abstracts  must  be  preserved  in  small,  perfectly  dry  and  well- 
corked  vials  in  a  dry  and  cool  place. 

Their  uniformity  alone  should  have  favored  the  employment  of  Abstracts  in 
preference  to  the  Extracts,  since  they  do  not  share  the  variability  in  strength 
of  the  extracts,  the  dose  of  the  Abstract  being  exactly  one-half  that  of  the  crude 
drug  or  Fluid  Extract.  Unfortunately  this  advantage  on  the  other  hand,  was 
offset  by  the  disadvantage  that  Abstracts  are  more  bulky,  and  caused  their  dele- 
tion in  the  U.  S.  Ph.  '90. 

The  official  Extracts  of  Jalap  and  of  Nux  Vomica  have  superseded  the 
Abstracts  of  these  respective  drugs  in  a  more  concentrated  and  equally  con- 
venient iorm.  Of  the  remaining  nine  Abstracts  formerly  official  Aconite,  Bell- 
adonna, Conium,  Digitalis,  Hyoscyamus  (Ignatia,  superseded  by  Nux  Vomica), 
Podophyllum,  Senega  and  Valerian,  the  five  first  mentioned,  commonly  but 


OLEORESINS.  367 

incorrectly  called  the  "narcotics,"  may  be  made  of  a  strength  to  represent  four 
times  the  weight  of  the  respective  drugs,  or  nearly  the  same  strength  as  the 
official  Extracts,  by  extraction  with  a  menstruum  of  Alcohol  75,  Chloroform 
25  vols. 

There  is  no  need  of  the  Abstract  of  Senega  nor  of  that  of  Podophyllum,  the 
resin  taking  its  place.  The  volatile  oil  in  Valerian  does  not  permit  of  evapora- 
tion necessary  for  the  preparation  of  an  extract  but  the  Abstract  is  an  ideal 
form  and  the  most  concentrated  preparation  of  Valerian  practicable. 

OLEORESINS.— OLEORESINS. 

The  pharmaceutical  Oleoresins  are  semi -liquid  extracts,  obtained 
by  exhausting  Oleoresinous  drugs  with  Ether.  The  natural  Oleo- 
resins have  been  considered. 

Ether  extracts  fixed  and  volatile  oils  from  drugs,  as  well  as  resin; 
these  principles  constitute  therefore  the  oleoresins  which  sometimes  also 
contain  other  active  matter  in  solution  or  suspension. 

The  menstruum  (ether)  being  easily  volatilized,  is  recovered  by  distillation; 
it  is  sometimes  superseded  by  alcohol,  which  yields  an  extract  very  similar  to 
that  obtained  with  ether. 

The  six  following  are  official: 

Oleoresina  Aspidii  separates  in  two  layers,  to  be  mixed  when  used. 
"         Capsici — separates  fat. 
"         Cubebre —     "         wax. 
*'         Lupulinaj 

"         Piperis — separates  piperine,  to  be  rejected. 
"         Zingiberis. 

RESINS.— RESINS. 

The  official  Resins  may  be  divided  into  the  (i)  Natural  Resins,  (2) 
Resins  obtained  from  Oleoresins  by  separating  the  Volatile  Oil  by 
distillation  and  (3)  the  Pharmaceutical  Resins,  prepared  by  precipita- 
tion. 

When  a  concentrated  tincture  of  a  resinous  drug  is  poured  into  a  large 
quantity  of  cold  water  the  resinous  matter  becomes  insoluble  and  is  precipitated; 
this,  after  being  washed,  dried  and  sometimes  powdered,  is  termed  a  >\-sin. 

Resins  are  usually  soluble  in  Alkalies  and  inso!itl>/c  in  Acids  (dilute);  for  this 
reason  the  Water  used  for  precipitation  is  sometimes  rendered  slightly  acid  to 
favor  the  separation. 

The  three  following  are  official: 

Resina  Jalapce — precipitated  in  water;  yield  15^.1  rep.  6  of  Drug. 
'•       Scammonii          "  •'•          ;'       80-7. 

"       Podophylli         "         in  acidulated  water;  yield  5^,1  rep. 
20  of  Drug. 

The  Resins  obtained  as  by-products  in  the  distillation  of  oils: 


368  RESINS. 

Resina  and  Resina  Copaibge  and  the  Natural  Resins  have  previously 
been  described. 

The  terms  resin,  resinoid  and  concentration  are  also  applied  to  a  class  of  prep- 
arations used  by  eclectic  physicians,  prepared  by  this  general  process  with  some 
modifications.  (See  U.  S.  and  Am.  Disp.) 

They  are  named  after  their  respective  Drugs  with  the  ending  in  as  in  the 
Glucosides  and  must  not  be  confused  with  the  latter.  While  the  Glucosides 
are  usually  the  active  medicinal  constituents  representing  the  drug,  theresinoids 
being  only  the  resinous  constituents  represent  the  value  of  such  drugs  only, 
whose  chief  constituents  are  resins,  or  whose  medicinal  value  depends  upon 
resins. 


Mixtures  of  Solids. 

This  division  embraces  the  several  classes  of  preparations  consisting 
of  Mixtures  of  Solids  in  various  forms. 

As  their  therapeutic  uses  govern  their  pharmacal  form,  they  may  be 
divided  into  those  (1)  for  internal  use  and  those  (2)  for  external  use. 
The  iirst  group  includes  the  Powders,  Triturations,  Confections, 
Troches,  Masses  and  Pills. 

These  are  treated  according  to  the  progressive  system,  illustrative  of 
the  successive  methods  by  which  the  various  preparations  may  be 
made  from  each  other,  i.  e.,  from  the  lowest  forms,  powder,  to  the 
highest,  pills. 

From  a  powder  the  other  preparations  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Trituration,  by  trituration  with  a  diluent  as  Sugar  of  Milk. 

Confection,  by  making  a  mass  from  the  powder  with  Sugar,  etc. 

Troches,  by  cutting  a  mass  like  a  Confection  containing  gum  and 
flavor  into  discs,  to  be  slowly  dissolved  in  the  mouth. 

Mass,  by  forming  the  powder  into  a  plastic  mass  with  Excipients. 

Pills,  by  forming  the  mass  into  spherical  bodies  not  to  exceed  0.3  in 
weight,  intended  to  be  swallowed. 

POWDERS— PULVERES. 

The  nine  official  Powders  are  impalpable  mixtures  of  one  or  more 
active  drugs,  usually  with  some  nearly  inert  substance  such  as  Sugar. 
as  a  diluent,  and  Aromatics. 

They  are  made  by  trituration: 

PlllviS —  Cm.  in  100. 

Antimonialis  (James')  .  calc.  phos.  67,  antimon.  oxide  33. 

Aromaticus   ....  cinnamon  (Ceylon),  ginger,  each  35. 

cardamom  (seed),  nutmeg,  each  15. 

Crete  Compositus  .  acacia  p.  20,  sugar  50.  prep,  chalk  30. 

Glycyrrhizse  Compositus   .    .  senna  18,  glycyrrhiza  r't  24. 

fennel  oil  0.4,  sulphur,  washed,  8,  sugar  50. 

Ipecacuanhas  et  Opii      .    .    .  ipecac,  opium  pulv. ,  each  10. 

(Dover's  Powder)  sugar  of  milk  80. 

Jalapae  Compositus  ....  potass,  bitartrate  65,  jalap  3.5. 

Rhei  Compositus  .    .  magnesia  65,  ginger  10,  rhubarb  25. 

369 


370  POWDERS. 

i n  60  grst 

Pulv.  MorphinaeCompositus  .  camphor  19,  morphine  sulph.  1. 

(Tulley's  Powder)  calcium  carb.  precip.,  gly- 

cyrrhiza  p. ,  each         20. 

for  12  poiv.     in  each,  grs. 
Effervescens  Compositus  .    .  potassium  and 

(Seidlitz  Powder)  sodium  tartrate     93  gm.  120 

sodium  bicarbonate     31  gm.  40 

acid  tartaric     27  gm.  35 

CONFECTIONS— CONFECTIONES. 

Confections  may  be  defined  as  flavored  masses  wherein  the  adhesive 
substance  is  Sugar,  in  larger  proportions,  serving  as  a  vehicle  for  mask- 
ing the  taste  of  the  drug. 

Confections,  when  made  by  beating  a  fresh  drug,  first  reduced  to 
pulp  with  sugar  until  of  the  proper  consistence,  are  termed  conserves. 
When  made  from  powders  or  extracts  they  are  called  electuaries. 
Only  one  representative  of  each  class  is  official : 

Gm.  in  100. 

Confectio  Rosse rose  water  16,  red  rose       8. 

(Conserve  of  Rose)  sugar  64, honey     12. 

f  oil  coriander  0.5,  senna     10. 

Confectio  Sennse       1       cassia  fistula  16,  fig  12,  tamarind     10. 

(Electuar.  Senna)  ^  pmne  7>  sugar  5g>  water  to  1QO> 

For  details  of  manipulation,  see  U.  S.  Ph. 
MASSES— MASS  JE. 

Masses  are  plastic  mixtures  of  pilular  consistence.     They  are  made: 
(1)  by  incorporating  the  drug  with  adhesive  substances;    (2)  by  chem- 
ical reaction;   (3)  sometimes  by  both. 
By  the  first  process: 

Massa  Hydrargyri    .    .    glycyrrhiza  5,  althaea  25,  mercury     33. 
Blue  Mass)  glycerin  3,  honey  of  rose     34. 

By  the  second  process: 

Massa  Copaibas water  1,  magnesia  6,  copaiba     94. 

The   Copaivic  acid  combines   with   the   magnesia,    forming   mag- 
nesium copaivate  of  pilular  consistence. 
By  both  these  processes: 

Massa  Ferri  Carbonatis  f  sodium  carb.,  ferrous  sulph.,  each   100. 
(Yallet's  Mass)  {         honey  38,  sugar  25,  syrup  to  100. 

By  double  decomposition  between  the  Ferrous  Sulphate  and  Sodium 
Carbonate,  ferrous  carbonate  is  formed,  which  is  incorporated  with 
Honey  and  Sugar  to  prevent  oxidation,  and  to  render  the  mixture  a 
plastic  mass. 


TROCHES. 


371 


TROCHES— TROCHISCI. 

Troches  or  lozenges  are  confections  made  into  various  forms  and 
then  dried. 

The  vehicle  or  excipient  consists  ot  powdered  gum  Tragacanth  or 
Sugar  with  flavoring,  in  some  cases  orange  flower  water;  in  others, 
tolu,  nutmeg,  vanilla,  etc. 

The  active  ingredients  are  mixed  with  the  diluent  or  vehicle  and  made  into 
a  plastic  mass  with  the  particular  excipient,  water,  or  syrup.  The  mass  is 
rolled  out  to  the  requisite  thickness  and  the  disks  formed  by  cutting  through 
it  with  a  punch,  or  troche-cutter.  The  troches  are  then  dried  by  exposure. 

The  size  and  weight  of  the  troche  are  regulated  by  the  thickness  of  the  mass 
and  the  diameter  of  the  cutter. 

The  15  official  Troches  vary  in  weight  from  Gm.  0.5  to  1.5: 

ACTIVE  DRUG. 


Trochisci:  ^m-  in  100  Troches. 

Acidi  Tannici 6. 

Ammonii  Chloridi 10. 

extract  glycyrrhiza  25. 

Catechu 6. 

Cretae 25. 

Cubebae oleoresin     4. 

extract  glycyrrhiza  25. 
sassafras  oil     1. 

Ferri ferric  hydrate  30. 

Glycyrrhizae    .   ext.  glycyrrhiza  15. 

et  Opii                powd.  opium     0.5 
Ipecacuanhas 2. 


In  Each  Troche. 
0.06     orange   flor. 
tolu. 


orange  flor. 

nutmeg. 

tolu. 


vanilla, 
anise. 


Krameriae extract 

Menthae  Piperitae oil 

Morphine  .    .  .  morphine  sulph 

et  Ipecac.  powd.  ipecac     0.50 

Potassii  Chloratis 30. 

Santonini 3. 

Sodii  Bicarbonatis 20. 

Zingiberis  ....  tinct  ginger  20.          0.2 
Lozenges  of  peppermint,  lemon,   musk,  vanilla  and  gaultheria  may 
readily  be  prepared   by  saturating  sugar  lozenges  with  the  respective 
essences  or  tinctures  and  permitting  the  alcohol  to  volatilize. 


0.1 

0.25 

0.06 

0.25 

0.04 

0.25 

0.01 

0.3 

0.15 
mg.5. 

0.02 

3.  0.06 
1.  0.01 
0.16  mg.  1  ITT  gaultheria. 

"    5. 

0.3 

0.03 

0.2 


orange. 

"        flor. 
peppermint. 


lemon, 
orange  flor. 
nutmeg, 
ginger. 


372  PILLS. 

PILLS— PILULE. 

Pills  are  spherical,  more  or  less  soluble,  masses  of  medicinal  sub- 
stances rendered  cohesive,  plastic  and  firm  in  consistence  by  the  ad- 
dition of  some  substance  (usually  inert),  termed  excipient. 

The  kind  of  excipient  employed  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  medic- 
inal substance.  As  a  general  rule  such  substances  are  chosen  as  give 
to  the  mass,  with  the  smallest  proportion,  the  greatest  plasticity,  and 
also  best  preserve  the  spherical  shape  of  the  pills.  The  excipient 
must  also,  unless  the  contrary  be  directed  for  especial  purposes,  be  in- 
different in  character  to  avoid  change  in  the  medicinal  agents. 

Soluble  Substances  are  rendered  adhesive  by  the  action  of  solvents 
and  require  the  addition  of  some  liquid  that  will  act  dissolving 
—water,  alcohol,  glycerin,  etc.,  according  to  their  solubilities. 
Others  require  the  addition  of  adhesive  substances,  such  as  Syrup, 
Mucilage,  Glucose,  Glycerite  Starch  or  Tragacanth,  etc. 

Drugs  adapted  for  dispensing  in  the  form  of  pills  may  be  divided  as 
follows: 

(1)  The  official  Masses,  Extracts  and  Scaled  Salts. 

Masses  and  extracts,  being  of  pilular  consistence,  require  no  addition,  except 
when  hard,  Water  is  incorporated  to  restore  them  to  their  original  form. 
Abstracts  and  powdered  extracts  are  best  made  into  a  mass  with  water. 

(2)  Vegetable  powders  in  which    the  dose  does  not  exceed  five 
grains. 

With  these  adhesive  excipients  are  indicated,  such  as  Syrup,  Mucilage, 
Glycerite  Tragacanth  and  Glucose.  The  last  mentioned  answers  the  require- 
ments better  than  most  other  substances.  Confection  of  Rose  and  Extracts  of 
Gentian,  Glycyrrhiza  and  Taraxacum  are  also  used,  when  their  color  is  not 
objectionable. 

(3)  Salts  not  too  deliquescent  and  Alkaloids. 

Excipients  for  these  must  combine  adhesive  and  absorbent  qualities.  They 
are  first  triturated  with  a  dry  powder,  /.  e.,  Althea,  Glycyrrhiza  or  Milk  Sugar, 
and  then  mixed  with  the  adhesive  substance,  viz.:  Glucose  or  Glycerite  of 
Starch,  or  Tragacanth. 

Xo  excipient  must  be  used  that  will  give  to  the  mass  a  color  different  from 
ih'ct  of  the  medicinal  ingredients  (the  base). 

(4)  Volatile  oils  and  oleoresins. 

The  quantity  of  these  when  dispensed  in  pills  being  comparatively  large,  it  is 
necessary  to  add  some  light  absorbent  substance,  such  as  Magnesia  or  Starch,  to 
which  is  added  the  adhesive  material.  The  practice  of  adding  wax  or  resin  to 
oils  is  not  to  be  recommended  except  as  a  last  resort,  since  they  tend  to  render 
the  pill  insoluble. 

(5)  Resins  and  gum-resins. 

These  form  an  adhesive  mass  by  the  addition  of  a  little  Alcohol,  with  which 


EXCIPIENTS.  373 

more  bulky  excipients,  such  as  Soap,  may  be  incorporated  to  preserve  the 
shape  of  the  pill. 

(Gj  Salts  of  the  Cinchona  Alkaloids,  quinine  and  cinchonidine 
sulphates,  etc. 

These  are  often  prescribed  in  pill-form  in  large  doses,  and  it  is  therefore  de- 
sirable to  reduce  their  bulk.  For  this  purpose  dilute  Sulphuric  Acid  or  Tar- 
taric  Acid  is  added  in  small  quantity,  which  acts  dissolving  upon  the  salt, 
thereby  converting  it  into  a  mass.  This  mass  is  incorporated  with  a  little 
Glycerite  of  Starch,  otherwise  it  soon  loses  its  plasticity,  and  must  therefore  be 
rolled  into  pills  as  soon  as  formed.  Chinoidine  acts  the  same  way,  although 
its  bulk  is  not  reduced. 

(7)  Substances  easily  decomposed  by  organic  matter. 

Potassium  Permanganate  and  Silver  Nitrate  are  quickly  "reduced"  when  in- 
corporated with  the  excipients  usually  employed. 

These  should  be  mixed  with  an  inorganic  diluent  not  affected  by  them,  such 
as  Kaolin,  Pipe  clay  or  Fuller's  Earth  and  made  into  a  mass  with  Water, 
Petrolatum,  Resin  Cerate,  etc. 

In  making  pills  the  following  points  are  to  be  observed: 

The  substance,  if  a  solid,  must  be  reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder, 
thoroughly  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  the  diluent  or  excipient; 
the  remainder  of  the  excipient  is  then  incorporated. 

The  mass  must  be  worked  until  it  is  perfectly  homogeneous  and  of 
such  consistence  that  it  will  scarcely  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the  mortar, 
but  form  a  coherent  mass  upon  the  pestle.  A  good  pill  mass  is  re- 
cognized by  this  quality,  in  which  case  the  mortar  employed  will  pre- 
sent an  almost  clean  appearance  when  the  mass  is  finished. 

The  mortar  used  for  making  pills  should  be  a  No.  2  or  Xo.  3,  with 
a  bottom  rather  deep  than  flat;  the  pestle  should  not  fit  too  closely, 
but  its  extreme  end  should  be  shaped  somewhat  differently  from  the 
shape  of  the  bottom  of  the  mortar. 

In  rolling  the  mass  the  cylinder  must  be  of  uniform  diameter  and 
even  at  the  ends.  When  cut  upon  a  pill  machine,  the  cutter  is  placed 
lightly  upon  the  cylindrical  roll  and  moved  to  and  fro  with  gradually 
increasing  pressure,  until  the  roll  is  divided  and  the  pills  formed. 
They  may  be  rounded  with  a  slab,  or  lid  from  a  wooden  ointment 
box,  or  some  similar  device,  termed  a  pill-finisher. 

Dusting  poivdcr  is  used  for  rolling  the  mass  (to  prevent  it  from 
sticking,  for  which  powd.  Glycyrrhiza  is  the  best);  also  for  dusting 
upon  the  pills  to  keep  them  separated  from  each  other  and  to  retain 
their  shape;  for  this  purpose  Lycopodium  is  used  except  for  white  pills, 
which  should  be  rolled  in  and  dusted  with  Milk  Sugar  or  Starch. 

In  pills  c-.-'iitcJ  with  Sugar  or  Gelatin,  such  excipient  is  frequently  employed 
as  will  prevent  the  mass  from  acting  upon  the  coating  — staining  the  pill.  The 


374 


OFFICIAL   PILLS. 


more  soluble  a  pill  the  greater  is  the  danger  of  discoloration  of  the  coating, 
and  although  solubility  should  be  the  greatest  desideratum,  it  is  frequently 
sacrificed  in  coated  pills  for  an  elegant  exterior.  With  some  masses,  staining  of 
the  coated  pill  cannot  be  avoided,  no  matter  what  excipient  may  be  employed, 
in  that  event  some  insoluble  substance,  such  as  French  Chalk  or  Starch,  is 
spread  upon  the  pills  before  the  sugar  coating  is  applied. 
The  following  15  Pills  are  official: 


PlLUL/E. 

Gm. 
for  100 

IN    EACH. 

Excipient. 

eg. 

grains 

Aloes        aloes  purif.  ,  soap,  each 

13 

9 
7 
i3 
4 
3 
13 
6 

4 

4 
4 

8 

20 

8 
6 
3 
i-5 
6 

3 

i-5 

0.8 
16 
8 
i 
4 

5 
I, 

0.06 

6 
20 
i3 

10 

6 
0.5 

13 
9 

7 
13 
4 
3 
13 
6 

4 
4 
4 
8 
20 
8 
6 
3 
1-5 
6 

3 
i-5 

0.8 
6 

6 

6-5 
0.06 

20 

13 
10 

6 

2 

& 

i 

2 

ti 
2 
I 

2A 
% 

1/3 

3 

iH 

i 

/•a 

% 

I 

K 

l/4 

y* 
i 

i 

i 

T5U 

o 
2 

I# 

I 

water, 
conf.  rose. 
water, 
syrup. 

castor  oil. 
soap. 

water. 

water, 
glyc.  water. 

water. 

glyc.  water, 
water. 

Aloes  et  Asafoetida   aloes,  asafcetida, 

soap,  each 
Aloes  et  Ferri  aloes,  ironsulf.,  arom.p. 

Aloes  et  Mastiches.  .,,.....,  aloes 

(Dinner  Pill)                                       mastic 
red  rose 
Aloes  et  Myrrhae     iloes 

myrrh 
arom.   powder 
Antimonii  Comp  antimony  sulphurated 

(Plummer's  Pills)  mild  mercurous  chlor. 
guaiac 
Asafoetida    asafcetida 

Cathartic  Comp.  .  .  .  extract  colocynth  comp. 
mild  mercurous  chloride 
extract  of  jalap 
gamboge 
Cathartic.  Vegetabilis.  .ext.  colocynth  comp. 
exts.  hyoscyam.,  jalap,  each 
ext.  leptandra,  res.  podophyll. 
oil  peppermint 
Ferri  Carbonatis   ferrous  sulphate 

(Ferruginous,  Chalybeate,        potass,  carb. 
Blaud's).  .  .  .sugar/},  tragac.,  althea,  each 
Ferri  lodidi1    reduced  iron 

iodine 
glycyrrh.,  sugar,  each 
ext.  glycyrrh.,  acacia,  each 
Opii   soap  2    opium  pulv 

Phosphori1  phosphorij 

althea,  acacia,  each 
Rhei  soap  6,  rhubarb 

Rhei  Comp  rhubarb 

aloes 
myrrh 
oil  peppermint 

'Coated  with  ethereal  solution  of  Balsam  Tolu. 
2Phosphorus  dissolved  in  Chloroform. 


Preparations  for  External   Use. 

To  this  class  belong  Ointments,  Cerates,  Suppositories,  Plasters 
and  Papers.  The  Vehicle,  sometimes  incorrectly  called  the  "base," 
of  the  three  first  mentioned  consists  of  fatty  substances;  of  Plasters 
either  Lead  Plaster,  resins,  oleoresins,  or  mixtures  of  these. 

The  preparations  for  external  medication  are  classified  according  to 
their  fusibility,  or  melting  points,  because  their  therapeutic  uses  as 
well  as  their  pharmaceutical  forms  are  through  this  quality  respectively 
determined. 

Ointments  fuse  at  the  body  temperature  and  therefore  produce  an  emollient 
effect,  or  induce  the  absorption  of  the  medicinal  substance  by  the  system. 

Cerates  have  a  higher  fusing  point,  due  to  Wax  they  contain;  the  medicinal 
agent  is  not  so  readily  absorbed  and  they  are  therefore  used  to  produce  local 
effects. 

Suppositories  have  the  same  fusibility  as  cerates  and  may  be  said  to  be  cerates 
intended  for  application  to  the  orifices  of  the  body. 

Plasters  have  a  still  higher  fusibility;  they  do  not  melt  but  become  adhesive 
by  the  body  temperature  and  are  intended  to  produce  local  effect  and  afford 
mechanical  support  to  the  parts  affected. 

The  fusibility  is  likewise  governed  by  the  respective  Arehicles  em- 
ployed. 

OINTMENTS— UXGUENTA. 

Ointments  are  mixtures  of  a  fatty  vehicle  with  which  medicinal 
agents  are  incorporated,  readily  fusing  at  the  body  temperature  3.3°  to 
40°C.  (0.">°  to  ]04°F>. 

The  vehicles  used  are:  Benzoated  Lard,  Ointment  (simple1,  Lard 
and  Wax  or  Spermaceti  in  different  proportions.  Lard  Oil,  Olive  Oil 
and  Suet.  Petrolatum  and  Wool-Fat  are  employed  in  unofficial  oint- 
ments. 

The  medicinal  ingredients  must  be  minutely  distributed  through  the  vehicle 
in  order  that  the  ointment  may  not  prove  irritating  and  that  the  greatest  pos- 
sible surface  be  presented  to  the  epidermis  with  a  view  to  quick  and  uniform 
absorption.  For  this  reason  the  highest  quality  of  an  ointment  (next  to  its 
proper  melting  point)  is  smoothness.  In  the  preparation  of  ointments  care 
must  therefore  be  taken  that  the  method  employed  be  such  as  to  yield  .->neeit/i 
products. 

The  melting  point  is  governed  by  the  fusibility  of  the  vehicle  used,  which  is 
either  officially  directed,  as  in  official  preparations,  or  in  extemporaneous 
preparations  prescribed  by  the  physician. 


376  OINTMENTS. 

The  23  official  Ointments  are  prepared:  (1)  by  mechanical  admix- 
ture, (2)  by  fusion,  or  (3)  by  chemical  reaction. 

(1)  Mixing  the  medicinal  substances  with  the  fatty  body  in  a  mor- 
tar, or  on  a  slab,  is  the  process  usually  employed  for  solid  substances, 
especially  when  insoluble  in  the  fat.  Powdered  Drugs,  Acids,  Alka- 
loids, Extracts  and  Salts  (not  attended  by  chemical  union)  are  exam- 
ples adapted  to  this  process. 

The  following  points  must  be  observed: 

The  so/it/  must  be  in  a  very  fine  powder;  a  small  portion  of  the  fat 
must  first  be  intimately  mixed  with  the  powder  and  the  remainder  of 
the  vehicle  then  thoroughly  incorporated  until  a  perfectly  homogeneous 
mixture  is  obtained. 

Extracts,  especially  when  hard,  are  softened  by  the  addition  of  a 
small  quantity  of  Water  or  Alcohol,  according  to  the  solvent  used  in 
their  extraction;  then  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  the  fat,  and  finally 
incorporate  with  the  whole  quantity. 

Acids,  such  as  Boric,  Carbolic,  Gallic,  Tannic,  etc.,  are  readily 
incorporated;  a  more  intimate  mixture,  however,  is  obtained  when  the 
fat  is  fused  previous  to  admixture  with  the  drug,  but  the  product  then 
requires  to  be  stirred  diligently  until  cold. 

In  the  preparation  of  ointments  of  heavy,  dry  powders,  it  is  difficult  to 
prevent  the  agglomeration  of  the  insoluble  substance.  The  method  usually 
followed  is  to  triturate  the  powder  into  a  cream  with  a  small  quantity  of  Olive 
Oil,  then  add  the  vehicle;  glycerin  should  not  be  used  for  this  purpose  since  it 
is  incompatible  with  fats.  The  best  method  is  to  triturate  the  powder  with  the 
previously  melted  fat,  added  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  in  a  warm  mortar, 
and  straining  the  liquid  mixture  through  a  warmed,  coarse  sieve,  or  coarse 
cloth.  This  process  is  especially  to  be  commended  in  preparing  Ointment  of 
Zinc  Oxide. 

Official  ointments  prepared  by  simple  admixture  are  the  following: 

Parts  of  Drug 

UNGUENTUM —  in  joo.          Vehicle. 

Acidi  Carbolici 5         ointment 

Acidi  Tannici 20         benz.lard 

Belladonnae  (dil  alcohol  5) 10  " 

Chrysarobini  (chrysophanic  acid) 5 

Gallae 20  " 

Hydrargyri  (blue  ointment) mercury  50 

mercury  oleate  2,  suet  23,  lard  25 

Hydrargyri  Ammoniati 10         benz. lard 

Hydrargyri  Oxidi  Flavi 10         ointment 

Hydrargyri  Oxidi  Rubri  (castor  oil  5) 10 

lodi  (potass,  iod.  i,  water  2  parts) 4         benz.lard 

lodoformi.,  10  " 


OINTMENTS.  377 

Parts  of  Drug 
UNGUENTUM —  in  100.        Vehicle. 

Plumbi  Carbonatis 10        benz.lard 

Plumbi  lodidi 10 

Potassii  lodidi  (sod.  hyposulph.  i,     water  10) 12 

Stramonii  ext. .  (dil.  ale.  5) 10 

Sulphuris  (washed) 30 

Veratrinae  (olive  oil  6) 4 

Zinci  oxidi 20       _          " 

(2)  Substances  readily  fusible  should  be  melted,  when  prepared  in 
the  form  of  ointments,  so  that  they  may  be  more  intimately  mixed. 

The  substance  having  the  highest  melting  point,  i.  e. ,  wax  or 
plaster,  is  first  melted;  the  fat  is  then  added;  when  complete  liquefac- 
tion is  effected,  the  mixture  is  strained  and  then  stirred  until  cold. 

The  following  are  official: 

UNGUENTUM  (Simple) lard  80,  yellow  wax  20 

Aquae  Rosae spermaceti  12.5,  white  wax  12 

(Cold  Cream) expressed  oil  of  almond  60 

then  incorporate,  borax  0.5,  rose  water  19 

Diachylon  (Hebra's) lead  plaster  50 

oil  lavender  i,  olive  oil  49 

Picis  Liquidac yellow  wax  12.5,  lard  37.5,  tar  50 

(3)  By  chemical  reaction,   whereby  the  character  of  the  medicinal 
substance,  and  also  that  of  the  vehicle,  is  changed. 

The  only  ointment  of  this  class  official  is  that  of  mercuric  nitrate, 
in  which  the  mercury  is  acted  upon  by  nitric  acid,  forming  mercuric 
nitrate  and  the  lard  is  oxidized  by  another  portion  of  the  acid,  form- 
ing a  new  compound  termed  claidin. 

Parts  in  100. 
Unguentum  Hydrargyri  Nitratis.  .  .  .mercury  7,  dissolve  in  nitric  acid     10.5 

incorporate  with  lard  oil  76,  previously  treated  with  nitric  acid       7. 
At  a  temperature  100  C  and  allowed  to  cool  4OCC,  avoiding  contact  with  iron. 

The  Oleates,  closely  related  therapeutically  to  the  ointments,  have 
already  been  considered. 

CERATES— CERATA. 

Cerates  are  mixtures  of  fats  similar  to  the  ointments,  but  of  firmer 
consistence,  because  they  contain  Wax  or  Resin,  having  a  higher  melt- 
ing point  than  lard,  in  greater  proportion  than  do  ointments.  In  the 
preparation  of  cerates  the  same  rules  are  to  be  observed  as  noted  under 
ointments. 

The  six  official  cerates  are  divided  into  two  classes: 

(i)   Prepared  by  fusion  or  simple  admixture: 


378  CERATES. 

in  100. 
CERATUM  (Simple) lard  70,  white  wax     30 

Camphorae lard  60,    white  wax  30 

camphor  liniment  10 

Cetacei white  wax  35,  spermaceti  10 

olive  oil  55 

Plumbi  Subacetatis solution  lead  subacetate  20 

(Goulard's  cerate)  camphor  cerate  80 

Resinae yellow  wax  15,   lard  50,  resin  35 

(Basilicon)  in  cold  weather         "  12,      "    53,      "  35 

(2)  By  maceration,  digestion  and  evaporation: 

Ceratum  Cantharidis oil  turpentine  15,  cantharides     32 

(Blistering  cerate)    mix  and  macerate  for  48  hours,  then  add  to  lard     22 

yellow  wax,  resin,  each     18 
previously  fused,  and  evaporate  to  100 

The  maceration  in  Turpentine  Oil  and  subsequent  digestion  renders  the 
vesicating  principle  of  the  Cantharides  soluble  and  the  preparation  hence  more 
active. 

SUPPOSITORIES— SUPPOSITORIA. 

Suppositories  may  be  defined  as  variously  shaped  masses  of  medi- 
cated fat,  possessing  a  consistence  insuring  their  quick  fusion  when 
introduced  in  the  orifices  of  the  body. 

The  U.  S.  Ph.  gives  a  General  Formula  for  preparing  suppositories; 
only  one  Suppository  is  official  and  this  is  not  made  from  Cacao  Butter. 

The  U.  S.  Ph.  defines  Suppositories  as  to  their  weights  and  shapes, 
corresponding  to  their  several  uses,  i.  e.,  for  introduction  in  the 
respective  orifices  of  the  body  : 

Rectal,  cone-shaped,  should  weigh  1  Gm. 

Urethra!,  pencil-shaped,  should  weigh  1  Gm. 
Vaginal,  globular,  should  weigh  about  3  Gm. 

The  vehicle  is  Cacao  Butter  (o/citin  t/u-olv-cmalis),  which  possesses  the  prop- 
erty of  melting  at  the  temperature  of  the  human  body  35~C.  (95°F.),  and  yet 
remaining  firm  at  ordinary  temperatures.  An  addition  of  10  per  cent  of  sper- 
maceti has  been  recommended  to  raise  the  melting  point  and  thus  give  more 
stability  to  suppositories  during  the  heated  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  iiiithoJi  of  preparing  suppositories  are  quite  numerous:  any  process  may 
be  employed  by  which  the  product  is  obtained  uniform  in  size  and  shape  and 
with  the  medicinal  ingredients  thoroughly  incorporated.  Moulds  are  usually 
employed;  the  medicinal  ingredients,  if  solid,  are  first  reduced  to  powder  in  a 
mortar,  and  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  the  grated  Fat;  the  remainder  of 
the  Fat  previously  melted  and  cooled  to  35  C.  is  then  gradually  incorporated 
with  this  mixture,  thoroughlv  mixed,  and  if  possible,  without  further  heating, 
poured  in  the  moulds,  previously  chilled. 

Another  process  consists  in  rolling  the  mass  on  a  slab,  cutting  It  as  in  mak- 
ing pills,  and  forming  the  cones  with  the  lingers.  By  cold  compression  in  a 
screw-press  "machine,"  suppositories  may  be  formed  from  the  prepared  mass. 


PLASTERS.  379 

Suppositoria  Clyccrini — Made  by  reaction  of  Sodium  Carbonate  0.3,  in  Glyc- 
erin 6  Gm.,  with  Stearic  Acid 0.5  and  heating  until  a  solution  ot  sodium  s teat-ate 
or  soap  is  formed,  which  is  poured  into  a  mould.  Upon  cooling,  the  mixture 
gelatinizes  and  the  suppository  is  wrapped  in  tin  foil. 

Uses. — Upon  introduction  in  the  rectum  the  mass  melts  and  the  Glycerin, 
acting  dissolving  upon  the  faeces,  produces  evacuation. 

PLASTERS— EMPLASTRA. 

Plasters  are  mixtures  of  various  fatty  or  resinous  solids  of  such  high 
melting  point  as  to  be  friable  when  cold,  but  rendered  adhesive  by  the 
warmth  of  the  body. 

The  vehicles  of  plasters  are:  Lead  plaster;  Resinous  substances, 
made  adhesive  by  admixture  with  the  medicinal  ingredients,  and  simple 
plasters,  such  as  Isinglass. 

The  making  of  Plasters  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  process 
employed  for  ointments  and  cerates,  since  they  are  all  prepared  by 
melting  the  various  substances,  and  incorporating  the  medicinal  sub- 
stances last.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  heat  be  not  con- 
tinued too  long,  lest  the  product  be  impaired. 

The  spreading  of  plasters,  though  usually  done  on  a  large  scale, 
may  be  easily  effected  by  the  pharmacist  with  the  use  of  a  piaster 
iron. 

The  thirteen  official  plasters  may  be  divided  into: 
(1)  Lead  Plasters,  (2)  Pitch  and   Gum   Resin  Plasters  and  (3)  Isin- 
glass Plaster. 

(1)  The  most  important  plasters  are  made  from  Lead  Plaster,  or 
lead  plaster  mixed  with  resin,  the  official  Resin  Plaster. 

in  100. 

EMPLASTRUM  PLUMIJI olive  oil  GO,  lead  oxide     '?>•>. 

(Diachylon)  mix  and  add  to  water     10 

Boil  the  mixture  until  the  reaction  has  ceased  and  the  plaster  is  of 
the  right   consistence,  when  cooled  in  water,   replacing  water 
lost  by  evaporation  from  time  to  time. 
The  reaction  has  been  explained  under  the  Oils. 

Emplastrum  Kesinac yellow  wax  6,  resin     14 

(Adhesive)  lead  plaster     So 

"  Saponis lead  plaster  go,  soap     10 

from  these  the  following  are  prepared: 

Emplastrum  Arnicoe resin  plaster  67.  extract  arnica  root     33 

Belladonna; ext.  belladonna  leaves     20 

resin  plaster,  soap  plaster,  each     40 

Capsici resin  plaster,  oleoresin  capsicum  q.  s. 

Hydrargyri lead  plaster  70,  mercury  oleate  1.2,  mercury     30 


380  PAPERS. 

containing  lead  plaster  and  pitch: 
Emp.  Ferri olive  oil  5,  ferric  hydrate      9 

(Strengthening)  Burgundy  pitch  14,  lead  plaster    72 

Opii Burgundy  pitch  18,  lead  plaster  76,  ext.  opium      6 

PicisCantharidatum Burgundy  pitch  92,  cerate  cantharides      8 

(Warming). 

(2)  Pitch  and  Gum  Resin  Plasters: 
EMPLASTRUM: 

Ammoniaci  cum  Hydrargyro oleate  mercury  0.8,  mercury     18 

ammoniac  72,  dil  acetic  acid,  lead  plaster,  to  100 

Picis  Burgundica? olive  oil  5,  yellow  wax     15 

Burgundy  pitch,  to  100 

(3)  Isinglass  Plaster: 

Emplastrum  Ichthyocollse,  Court  Plaster. 

A  solution  of  10  Gm.  Isinglass  is  dissolved  in  hot  Water  120  Gm.;  one 
half  of  the  solution  is  spread  upon  Silk  (taffeta)  in  successive  layers  and 
when  dry  the  other  half  of  the  solution  is  spread  on  in  a  similar  manner, 
after  firfet  having  been  mixed  with  Alcohol  40  Gm.,  Glycerin  i  Gm.  The 
taffeta  is  then  coated  on  the  reversed  side  with  Tincture  of  Benzoin. 

PAPERS— CHARTS. 

There  are  two  Papers  official.  One  is  made  by  saturating  strips  of 
white,  unsized  Paper  in  a  20  per  cent  solution  of  Potassium  Nitrate 
and  drying;  the  other  is  Paper  coated  with  Mustard  used  similarly  to 
the  Plasters: 

Charta  Potassii  Nitratis potass,  nitrate  20,  water    80 

Vapors  from  inceration  as  inhalant. 

Sinapis oil-free  black  mustard,  60  sq.  cm.  4  Gm. 

The  Mustard  is  freed  from  the  fixed  oil  by  extraction  with  Beozin  and 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  India-Rubber  in  equal  volumes  of  Benzin  ao4 
Carbon  Disulphide  and  spreading  upon  Paper. 


Dispensing. 


With  the  subject  of  dispensing  is  intimately  connected  that  of  the 
organization  of  a  pharmacy,  the  utensils,  shelf-bottles,  fixtures  and  its 
arrangement  generally.  An  adequate  description  of  these  can  not  be 
given  here,  and  the  student  is  referred  to  the  various  works  on  phar- 
macy. 

Apparatus,  involving  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  governing  their 
construction  and  employment  in  pharmaceutical  processes,  such  as  drug- 
mills,  funnels,  stills,  condensers,  etc.,  have  already  been  described  in 
connection  with  the  respective  operations. 

A  pharmacy  should  be  organized  from  a  dispensing  standpoint,  so 
as  to  combine  in  order  of  their  importance: 

(1)  Identity  and  convenience.      (~2)   Preservation  and  cleanliness. 

The  term  identity  is  here  applied  more  especially  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  containers,  with  a  view  to  prevent  mistaking  one  substance 
for  another;  the  dispensing  of  poison  naturally  comes  under  this  divi- 
sion. The  Nomenclature  of  the  labels  governs  this  to  a  great  extent, 
and  if  it  be  perfect  and  all  containers  arranged  in  alphabetic  order, 
the  safest  plan  of  preventing  mistakes  is  secured  to  competent  dispen- 
sers, while  to  those  less  advanced  it  is  the  only  true  or  scientific 
method. 

Many  objections  have  been  urged  against  this  system,  the  most 
pertinent  being  that  the  alphabetic  arrangement  sometimes  brings  a 
powerful  remedy  (heroicum)  next  to  one  possessing  very  mild  proper- 
ties, as,  for  example,  Tinctura  Opii  and  Tinctura  Opii  Camphorata, 
etc.  This  objection,  however,  can  not  be  sustained,  because  all 
poisons  and  remedies  possessing  great  activity,  though  not  always 
classed  as  poisonous  (termed  hcroica  in  the  Continental  Pharma- 
copoeias) should  be  kept  in  containers  of  a  capacity  adapted  to  the 
comparatively  smaller  quantity  required  for  dispensing  purposes. 

To  illustrate:  Tinctura  Opii,  if  included  in  the  general  arrangement  at  all, 
should  be  kept  in  a  bottle  not  exceeding  one  pint  capacity,  while  the  container 
for  Tinctura  Opii  Camphorata  should  hold  at  least  two  pints. 

It  has  also  been  proposed  that  the  old  Latin  names  in  some  cases  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  Pharmcopoeial  titles,  as,  for  example,  Sal  Rochelle  and  Tartarus 
Emeticus,  for  their  respective  official  chemical  names.  There  are  some  good 
reasons  for  this,  in  that  the  official  names  of  thes*  two  compounds,  on  contain- 

381 


382  DISPENSING. 

ers  of  nearly  the  same  size,  especially  if  the  names  be  incorrectly  abbreviated, 
may  easily  be  mistaken  for  each  other,  viz. :  Sod.  Pot.  Tart,  and  Ant.  Pot. 
Tart.  But  the  great  difference  in  the  respective  quantities  kept  on  hand  for 
dispensing  purposes  of  these  and  other  similarly  related  substances  may  be 
trusted  to  guard  against  confusion.  The  plan  is,  moreover,  without  justifica- 
tion, for  the  reason  that  it  would  perpetuate  arbitrary  synonyms  without 
scientific  warrant. 

A  strict  adherence  to  the  Pharmacopceial  nomenclature,  with  a 
faultless  abbreviation  on  all  containers,  will  not  only  tend  to  guard 
against  errors  in  dispensing,  but  is  also  desirable  because  of  itc  great 
convenience.  It  enables  those  familiar  with  Pharmacopoeial  nomen- 
clature to  find  at  least  official  substances  with  ease  in  any  pharmacy, 
and,  while  a  correct  system  affords  the  beginner  much  instruction  and 
information,  a  confused  or  inaccurate  one  will  prove  exceedingly  in- 
convenient, annoying,  and  be  frequently  fraught  with  serious  conse- 
quence?. But,  in  order  that  fatal  mistakes  may  be  as  far  as  possible 
prevented,  all  substances  known  as  poisonous  should  be  kept  in  separate 
compartments,  preferably  under  lock  and  key. 

The  isolation  of  poisons  seems  to  be  the  most  practicable,  as  it  is 
the  safest  method  of  all  the  plans  proposed,  for  preventing'mistakes  ol 
a  fatal  character  in  dispensing.  As  an  additional  precaution  the  sub- 
stances should  be  left  in  the  original  containers,  as  these  usually  are 
each  characteristic  as  to  size  and  proportions.  Of  the  various  devices 
designed  for  this  purpose,  there  are  containers  of  colored  glass,  painted 
black,  covered  with  sand  paper,  or  provided  with  odd  stoppers  with 
jagged  edges  to  rouse  the  attention  of  the  dispenser;  none  of  these,  it 
is  believed,  can  be  relied  upon  unless  the  poisons  are  also  kept  in  a 
separate  place. 

A  case  especially  arranged  for  poisons  such  as  that  designed  by  Mr.  H. 
Birotli  (See  Proc.  Am.  Pharm.  Assoc.,  1884)  combines  the  advantages  of  com- 
pactness and  convenience  and  is  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Upon  the  theory  that  mistakes  frequently  occur  because  of  absent-minded- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  dispenser,  it  has  been  proposed  that  all  poisons  be  kept 
in  a  drawer,  in  which  the  containers  are  promiscuously  tnrown,  thus  compelling 
the  dispenser  carefully  to  examine  the  label  for  such  as  may  be  wanted  for  use. 

PRESERVATION. 

The  presenation  of  medicinal  agents  is  a  very  important  part  of 
the  pharmacist's  duties.  Many  of  them,  while  originally  of  good 
quality,  under  certain  conditions,  such  as  exposure  to  light,  changes 
in  temperature,  etc.,  deteriorate  and  not  infrequently  spoil. 

The  attention  to  be  observed  in  the  preservation  of  crude  drugs  of 
vegetable  origin  has  already  been  pointed  out,  and  the  requirements 


PRESERVATION.  383 

in  this  respect  for  chemical  compounds  are  indicated  in  the  previous 
lectures. 

But  a  still  more  important,  if  not  larger,  class  of  substances  are  left 
for  consideration,  namely,  the  so-called  Galenic  preparations,  and 
especially  those  of  a  liquid  character.  Among  these,  the  weaker 
preparations  (that  is,  solutions  not  saturated,  such  as  tinctures,  spirits, 
medicated  waters,  solutions,  etc.),  are,  as  a  rule,  preserved  without 
much  difficulty,  although  undue  exposure  should  as  far  as  possible  be 
avoided.  Essential  and  Fixed  Oils  and  preparations  of  the  latter, 
such  as  Ointments  and  Cerates  and  Plasters,  should  be  kept  in  a  cool 
and  dark  place,  and  be  well  protected  from  the  atmosphere,  in  tightly 
stoppered  containers. 

In  saturated  solutions  preservation  is  more  difficult,  especially  with 
compound  preparations  containing  various  ingredients,  as,  for  ex- 
ample. Elixirs  and  Fluid  Extracts.  In  many  of  these,  upon  exposure 
to  the  slightest  change  in  temperature,  some  constituent  is  thrown 
out  of  solution,  giving  to  the  preparation  a  cloudy  appearance  or 
precipitate,  either  of  which  is  very  undesirable.  Such  preparations 
should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  as  near  as  possible  to  that  at  which 
they  were  prepared. 

Syrups  and  Emulsions,  owing  to  their  consistence,  rarely  precipitate, 
but,  since  they  do  not  contain  any  alcohol,  they  are  liable  to  ferment 
or  otherwise  spoil,  when  exposed  to  warmth,  and  they  should  there- 
fore be  stored  in  a  cool  place. 

The  ordinary  glass-stoppered  bottles  are  not  adapted  to  syrups,  because  the 
caking  of  the  syrup  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  will  make  the  withdrawal  of  the 
stopper  exceedingly  difficult  and  sometimes  at  the  danger  of  fracturing  the  con- 
tainer. To  avoid  this  difficulty,  so-called  "syrup  bottles"  are  sometimes  used 
in  which  the  stoppers  rest  loosely  upon  the  enlarged  neck  of  the  bottle,  inside 
of  which  the  stopper  proper  is  suspended  without  coming  in  contact  with  the 
sides.  The  objection  to  this  form  of  container  is,  that  the  air  is  not  excluded, 
and  the  syrup  is  therefore  liable  to  spoil.  The  best  kind  of  containers  for 
syrups  and  all  saccharine  liquids  are  ordinary  bottles  with  corks  and  written 
labels;  these  are  more  convenient,  are  easily  cleaned,  and,  in  case  of  breakage, 
are  comparatively  inexpensive;  besides,  the  syrup  may  be  poured  into  them 
whilst  hot,  without  injuring  the  label. 

rY\\e frescrrafion  of  Fluid  Extracts  presents  probably  more  difficul- 
ties than  any  other  single  class  of  preparations,  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  usually  saturated  solutions  of  organic  substances  or  principles. 
which,  upon  the  slightest  exposure,  and  frequently  without  exposure. 
become  insoluble,  and  are  thrown  out  of  solution  until  heavy  pre- 
cipitates are  formed.  This  precipitation  often  continues  until  a  very 


3^  PRESERVATION. 

large  proportion  of  the  extracted  matter,  which  often  represents  the 
most  valuable  principles  of  the  drug,  is  precipitated,  and  the  prepara- 
tion becomes  more  or  less  inert. 

This  precipitation  is  sometimes  due  to  exposure  to  changes  in  temperature, 
but  most  frequently  to  the  employment  of  menstrua  not  capable  of  holding  the 
extracted  matter  in  solution.  Other  causes,  however,  at  present  not  fully 
known,  also  operate  to  induce  this  change,  which  is  singular  in  that  when  it  has 
commenced  it  continues  to  develop,  and  the  precipitate  can  not  be  redissolved 
without  largely  increasing  the  quantity  of  liquid.  To  prevent  precipitation 
these  preparations  should  be  kept  at  even  temperature,  preferably  about  i5°C., 
and  care  should  be  taken  that  the  proper  menstrua  be  employed  in  their  manu- 
facture. The  containers  should  be  ordinary  bottles,  preferably  of  amber  glass, 
so  as  to  exclude  the  actinic  rays  of  sunlight,  which  appear  to  have  a  decom- 
posing action  upon  preparations  containing  a  large  proportion  of  chlorophyll ;  they 
should  also  be  provided  with  tight-fitting  corks,  so  as  to  prevent  evaporation  of 
the  alcohol.  Different  lots  of  fluid  extracts  of  the  same  drugs  should  never  be 
mixed,  as  the  slightest  change  in  the  alcoholic  strength  of  the  menstrua  in  differ- 
ent specimens  will  induce  precipitation. 

The  preservation  of  Solids,  embracing  also  mixtures  of  solid  sub- 
stances in  various  forms,  such  as  Cerates  an4  Ointments,  while  not  as 
difficult  as  with  preparations  in  the  liquid  form,  deserves  considerable 
attention,  because  their  preservation  involves  also,  to  a  great  extent, 
a  feature  very  essential  in  the  practice  of  pharmacy,  namely,  cleanli- 
ness. 

With  Extracts  (solid)  it  is  especially  to  be  observed  that  they  should  be  kept 
in  a  cool  and  dry  place.  Those  made  with  aqueous  menstrua,  such  as  extract 
of  Taraxacum,  are  liable  to  ferment,  when  they  swell  and  exude  around  the 
cover  of  the  jar,  defacing  the  label  and  the  furniture.  Extracts  made  with 
alcoholic  menstrua,  such  as  Aconite,  Nux  Vomica,  etc.,  by  exposure  to  a  warm 
temperature,  become  dry  and  hard,  rendering  their  dispensing  difficult.  Both 
of  these  undesirable  tendencies  of  the  extracts  may,  to  some  extent,  be  coun- 
teracted by  the  incorporation  of  five  per  cent  of  glycerin  in  many  of  them  when 
prepared,  but  glycerin  readily  absorbs  moisture,  and  its  presence  in  extracts, 
which  are  also  naturally  hygroscopic,  increases  this  quality,  hence  the  necessity 
of  storing  extracts  in  a  dry  place. 

These  observations  apply  also  to  Abstracts  or  Powdered  Extracts, 
Masses,  Confections,  Pills,  and  all  the  various  classes  of  preparations 
of  mixtures  of  solids. 

With  preparations  of  an  oleaginous  character  the  same  gen  oral  rule 
is  applicable  as  to  high  temperature  and  moisture.  Many  Cerates  and 
Ointments,  however,  are  prone  to  become  rancid  with  the  best  of 
precautions,  and  they  should  be  prepared  either  in  very  small  quan- 
tities only,  cr  as  in  the  case  of  Cerate  of  Lead  Subacetate,  be  prepared 
extemporaneously. 


GENERAL   DISPENSING.  385 

GKNKRAL  DISPENSING. 

The  dispensing  of  liquids  is  done  by  measure — except  with  a  few  sub- 
stances, such  as  acids,  glycerin,  ether,  etc.,  when  sold  in  considerable 
quantities  or  used  for  a  specific  purpose. 

The  measures  in  use  are  chiefly  of  glass,  graduated  either  according 
to  the  U.  S.  fluid  measure,  the  Metric  system  in  cubic  centimeters,  or 
according  to  both  upon  opposite  sides. 

In  dispensing  a  mixture  of  any  character,  the  dispenser  should 
ascertain,  first  of  all,  that  every  article  required  for  its  completion  is 
on  hand. 

The  practice,  however,  of  taking  down  all  containers  at  one  time, 
which  is  sometimes  done  with  this  object  in  view,  so  as  to  place  them 
within  easy  reach,  is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  reasons  explained 
under  the  dispensing  of  prescriptions. 

The  next  step  is  to  provide  the  bottle  or  container  with  a  good 
cork,  which  should  fit  accurately;  the  very  best  quality  of  corks  will  be 
found  the  cheapest  in  the  end;  nothing  is  so  apt  to  displease  a  patron 
as  to  find  a  poor,  worm-eaten  or  short-cut  cork  in  a  bottle. 

In  measuring  a.  liquid  into  a  "graduate"  from  a  shelf-bottle,  care 
should  be  observed  that: 

(1)  The  measure  be  held  by  grasping  the  base  of  the  vessel  firmly 
between  the  thumb  and  the  index  finger  of  the  left  hand,  bringing  it 
up  so  as  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  eye. 

(•2)  The  container  is  taken  down  from  the  shelf,  after  the  label  has 
first  been  carefully  read,  with  the  right  hand  placed  near  the  bottom. 

(:>)  The  stopper  is  then  clasped  between  the  free  little  finger  of 
the  left  hand,  extracted,  and  the  contents  poured  into  the  measure 
with  great  exactness. 

(4)  The  remaining  drop  upon   the   lip  of  the   bottle   is   then,  by  a 
dexterous  movement,  wiped  off  on  the  stopper,  the  latter  inserted,  and 
the  container  placed  back  on    the  shelf,  after  again   carefully   reading 
the  label. 

(5)  The  liquid  having  been   poured  in,  the   bottle  is  carefully  stop- 
pered with  a  cork,  the  top  extending  so  that  it  may  be  easily  extracted 
with  the  fingers,  but  yet  so   secure  that   any  jolting  the   package  may 
receive  will  not  be  sufficient  to  dislodge  it. 

The  /at>c!i>i£  is  also  an  important  part  of  dispensing.  The  label 
should  be  plain  and  printed  in  black  ink.  except  with  those  of  poisons, 
which  may  be  in  rt'ii  ink.  When  blank  labels  are  used,  the  name 
should  be  written  in  a  bold  and  legible  handwriting,  without  flourish. 


386  DISPENSING 

Labels  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  contain  such  information  as  may  be 
essential  to  an  intelligent  uses  of  the  article;  for  example,  with  glycerin,  "that 
it  be  diluted  with  a  little  water  before  applying  it  to  raw  surfaces,"  or  with 
castor  oil  how  the  taste  may  be  best  masked,  etc.  With  all  powerful  remedies 
the  labels  should  bear  the  doses,  with  some  injunction  that  care  be  observed  in 
its  employment,  at  least  when  for  internal  use. 

The /,?.<•/<•  should  combine  adhesiveness,  cleanliness  and  '•heapness;  Dextrin 
mucilage  possesses  these  qualities  better  than  any  made  from  acacia,  traga- 
canth  or  flour.  It  is  prepared  by  heating  four  ounces  t>f  dextrin  in  eight 
ounces  of  water  and  one  ounce  of  acetic  acid  until  it  is  dissolved;  then  add  one 
ounce  of  alcohol  to  preserve  it.  This  mucilage  is  used  for  gumming  postage 
stamps. 

In  uii'ilhi^  a  bottle,  the  label  should  be  affixed,  if  the  proportions  admit,  so 
that  the  center  of  the  label  will  be  about  three-fifths  the  distance  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bottle.  It  must  never  be  placed  across  the  seam  on  round  vials,  but 
exactly  between  the  two  seams,  and  should  always  be  perfectly  horizontal. 

DISPENSING  OF  SOLIDS. 

The  dispensing  of  solids,  to  be  treated  in  this  connection  from  a 
purely  mechanical  standpoint,  requires  no  special  observation,  as  it  in- 
volves merely  weighing  and  making  packages. 

"Wrapping  packages."  as  it  is  called,  though  apparently  a  trivial 
performance,  is  one  to  which  considerable  importance  is  attached  by 
expert  pharmacists,  and  when  carried  to  perfection  becomes  an  art 
which  even  the  public  does  not  fail  to  appreciate.  The  exterior  of 
packages,  no  less  than  of  the  dispenser  himself,  tends  to  influence  a 
favorable  impression  of  the  skill  of  the  pharmacist  and  promote  per- 
sonal confidence  and  esteem.  This  to  the  pharmacist  is  of  incalcula- 
ble value,  and,  as  the  extra  outlay  is  slight,  it  is  well  worthy  his  con- 
sideration. 

The  art  of  wrapping  a  package  artistically  may  easily  be  acquired  by 
any  one  possessing  adaptability  and  patience;  but  as  success  depends 
chiefly  upon  practice  and  experience,  the  subject  can  not  be  treated 
here,  except  in  calling  attention  to  a  few  general  rules  to  be  observed. 
These  arc: 

(T )    Suitable  paper. 

None  with  ragged  edges  should  ever  be  used,  except  for  heavy  goods,  Tvhen 
old  wrapping  paper  may  be  employed. 

(•_')    Paper  of  proper  size. 

An  assortment  of  different  sizes  should  invariably  be  kept  on  hand,  in  com- 
partments under  the  counter,  convenient  to  the  scales. 

(':{)    Properly  folded. 

The  package  to  be  so  made,  that  the  center  of  the  double  crease  shall  be 
exactly  in  the  center  of  the  package,  the  ends  folded  over  so  as  to  present  a  per- 


SOLIDS.  387 

fectly  square  knife-edge,  and  so  far  that  their  ends  meet.  The  package  should 
be  plump  and  nearly  square,  rather  than  flat  and  long.  Many  articles  can  not 
be  wrapped  so  as  to  conform  to  these  general  directions,  but  with  most  crude 
drugs  this  n.jthod  gives  a  package  of  correct  proportions  and  neat  appearance. 

(4)  Correctly  labeled. 

It  is  as  necessary  thr.t  packages  of  solid  substances  be  labeled,  as  are  bottles 
containing  liquids,  although,  except  in  the  case  of  poisons,  it  is  usually  neglected. 
The  label  should  be  placed  immediately  over  the  center  of  the  double  crease, 
and  attached  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  paste,  barely  sufficient  to  prevent  it 
from  slipping  off.  This  enables  the  purchaser  to  easily  remove  it  and  attach  it 
to  a  container. 

(5)  Securely  tied. 

When  the  package  is  made,  and  while  it  is  lying  upon  the  counter  right  side 
up,  the  twine  is  laid  over  it  along  the  double  crease  and  then  turned  over  with 
both  hands,  the  twine  being  held  in  position  during  this  operation.  After  the 
twine  has  been  crossed  in  the  center  this  operation  is  repeated  transversely,  and 
the  twine  then  tied  in  a  AT.'  knot  at  the  side.  This  operation  can  be  performed 
very  quickly,  and  at  no  time  is  it  necessary  to  lift  the  package  more  than  a  few 
inches  from  the  counter,  while  the  exceedingly  awkward  habit  of  placing  the 
twine  between  the  teeth  is  avoided. 

The  following  mixtures  of  Solids  are  unofficial: 

L\T/i!f!asi/ia. — Poultices  Ground  substances  such  as  Bran,  Oatmeal,  Flax- 
seed  or  Ulmus  mixed  with  boiling  hot  water  to  make  a  pasty  mass  to  be  spread 
on  cloth  and  applied  hot.  Mustard  Poultice  is  made  of  ground  Black  Must- 
ard or,  if  a  milder  effect  is  required,  equal  parts  of  Black  and  White  Mustard 
mixed  with  tepid  water. 

Ci--ii>;-tt,s, — Mixtures  of  drugs  in  coarse  powder,  such  as  Eucalyptus,  Erio- 
dictyon  with  clover  blossom,  etc.,  adapted  to  smoking  for  the  relief  of  Catarrh, 
etc. 

.SyV.vV.i-. — Teas — Mixtures  of  various  drugs  contused  or  coarsely  comminuted 
for  decoctions  or  infusions. 

SOLUTION'S    AND    MIXTURES: 

Collyria. —  Eye  Washes — Weak  aqueous  solutions  for  dropping  or  instilling  in 
the  eye. 

Gargarisina. — Gargles — Solutions  or  aqueous  mixtures  of  salts  or  astringent 
drugs  for  gargling. 

//,///.>•//.')• — Draught — A  term  applied  to  a  liquid  medicine  usually  to  be  swal- 
lowed at  one  "draught.  ' 

Injcctioncs. — Injections — Aqueous  solutions  of  about  i  per  cent  strength  for 
injecting  in  the  urethra  or  vagina  or  for  introduction  under  the  skin — subcu- 
taneous— with  the  hypodermic  syringe. 

Jn!ialatii>nes.—  Inhalations — Volatile  liquids  adapted  to  inhalation    of  vapors. 

Lstisncs. — Lotions  —  Washes,  antiseptic,  aqueous  mixtures  containing  in- 
soluble substances  or  solutions  of  antiseptic  agents. 

A'.'lniLr. — Sprays — Solutions  sprayed  in  the  body  orifices  by  an  atomizer. 

Kncmata. — Enemas  or  Clysters — Aqueous  mixtures  for  injection  in  the  rec- 
tum to  evacuate  the  bowels  or  to  serve  as  nourishment. 


Prescriptions. 


Prescription  is  literally  a  written  order  for  something — from/ra, 
for,  and  sc'-ibo.  I  write.  Its  popular  use,  however,  relates  to  medi- 
cines, usually  meaning  a  written  order  for  medicines,  though  it  is  fre- 
quently employed  to  designate  the  remedy  or  mixture  itself.  In 
reading  prescriptions  the  most  important  considerations  are: 

(1)  The  language  and  abbreviations. 

(2)  The  signs  and  terms. 

The  language  of  prescription-writing  is  primarily  Latin,  because  the 
pharmacopoeial  titles  are  chiefly  used  in  designating  remedies.  In 
other  features,  however,  such  as  directions  to  be  written  on  the  label, 
Latin  is  rarely  employed  in  America,  and,  when  used,  is  usually  its 
own  condemnation. 

LATIN  IN  PHARMACY. 

A  Nomenclature  that  can  be  understood  by  pharmacists  of  all  civilized 
nations  is  as  important  to  the  }  rofessicn  of  pharmacy  as  a  scientific 
nomenclature  of  animals  and  plants  is  to  the  zoologist  and  botanist. 

Because  it  is  a  language  with  which  most  scholars  are  familiar  and 
because  of  its  flexibility,  Latin  has  by  common  consent  been  adopted 
in  the  naming  of  drugs  and  pharmaceutical  preparations.  Besides,  it 
is  a  common,  though  by  no  means  a  universal,  practice,  for  physicians 
to  write  their  prescriptions  in  Latin. 

An  elementary  knowledge  of  the  language  is,  therefore,  of  con- 
siderable importance  to  the  pharmacist.  We  can  not,  of  course,  un- 
dertake here  to  give  the  student  a  course  in  Latin.  Those  who  have 
not  had  the  advantage  of  attending  schools  where  Latin  is  taught, 
should  become  familiar  with  the  rudiments  of  the  language  by  study- 
ing Robinson's  Latin  Grammar  or  some  similar  work  especially 
adapted  to  pharmaceutical  students. 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  Latin  in  prescription  writing,  the  following 
example  is  given: 

B      Acid.  Arscnos gr.  j 

Fcrri  Pyrophos 3    ss 

ffcs.  Podoph\l gr.   z>. 

M.  S.  A.  ft.  Mas.  ct  dir.  in  pi  I.  xx. 

S.    Una  pil.  detur  bis  in  die. 


LATIN.  3»9 

Unabbreviated  the  same  prescription  would  read  as  follows: 

Recipe:  Acidi  Arsenosi  granuin  uhum,  Ferri  Pyrophosphatis  drach- 
mam  semis,  et  Resinae  Podophylli  grana  quinque.  Misce  secundem 
artem,  fiat  massa,  et  divide  in  pilulas  viginti. 

Signa:  Una  pilula  detur  bis  in  die. 

Literally  translated  it  reads  as  follows:  Take  thou  of  Acid  Arse- 
nous  grain  one,  of  Iron  Pyrophosphate,  dram  a  half,  and  of  Resin  ot 
Podophyllum  grains  five.  Mix  according  to  art,  let  be  made  a  mass, 
and  divide  into  pills  twenty. 

Write:  One  pill  let  be  given  twice  in  a  day. 

Or,  putting  the  translation  in  the  proper  English  order,  the  prescrip- 
tion will  read: 

Take  of  Arsenous  Acid  a  grain,  of  Iron  Pyrophosphate  half  a  dram, 
and  of  Resin  of  Podophyllum  five  grains. 

Mix  according  to  art,  let  a  mass  be  made,  and  divide  into  twenty 
pills. 

Write:   Let  one  pill  be  given  twice  a  day. 

ANALYSIS. 

AV<7/v  is  a  verb  in  the  active  voice,  imperative  mode,  present  tense, 
second  person,  and  singular  number;  agreeing  with  tit  (thou)  understood. 

AciJi  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension,  in  the  singular  number  and 
genitive  case. 

Ai'si-nosi  is  an  adjective  agreeing  with  its  noun,  acidi,  in  gender  and  number 
and  case. 

'.tran HI/I  is  a  noun  of  the  second  declension,  neuter  gender,  singular  number 
and  accusative  case,  the  direct  object  of  the  word  AVr/yV. 

CHIII/I  is  a  numeral  adjective  agreeing  with  its  noun  granum  in  gender  and 
number  and  case. 

Fcrri  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension,  in  the  singular  number  and 
genitive  case. 

Pyrophosphatis  is  a  masculine  noun  of  the  third  declension  in  the  singular 
number  and  genitive  case. 

Israeli  ma  in  is  a  feminine  noun  of  the  first  declension  in  the  singular  numbei 
and  accusative  case,  and  governed  like  granum . 

Stinis  is  a  numeral  adjective  agreeing  with  its  nonn  drachmam  in  gendet 
number  and  case. 

/•'.t  is  the  conjunction  and,  connecting  the  preceding  two  clauses  to  the  one 
following. 

A'csiiiif  is  a  feminine  noun  of  the  first  declension,  in  the  singular  number  and 
genitive  case. 

/V,/( </•  iivlli  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension  in  the  singular  number 
and  genitive  case. 

Grana  is  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension  found  in  the  plural  number 
and  accusative  case. 


390  ANALYSIS. 

Quinque  is  a  numeral  adjective  qualifying  grana. 

Misce  is  a  verb  (from  misceo)  in  the  active  voice,  imperative  mode,  present 
tense,  second  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  tu  (thou)  understood. 

Secundem  is  a  preposition  governing 

Artcm,  which  is  a  noun  of  the  third  declension,  singular  number,  feminine 
gender  and  accusative  case. 

Fiat  is  a  verb  (from  fio)  in  the  active  voice  (in  form  though  not  in  meaning), 
subjunctive  mode,  present  tense,  third  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with 
its  subject,  massa. 

Massa  is  a  feminine  noun  of  the  first  declension,  singular  number  and  nomi 
native  case,  the  subject  of  fiat. 

Et  is  a  conjunction  connecting  misce  and  divide. 

Divide  is  a  verb  (from  divideo)  in  the  active  voice,  imperative  mode,  present 
tense,  second  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  tu  understood. 

/;.'  is  a  preposition  governing  pilulas. 

Pilnlas  is  a  feminine  noun  of  the  first  declension  in  the  plural  number,  ac- 
cusative case  and  governed  by  in. 

I'i^'inti  is  a  numeral  adjective  qualifying  pilulas. 

Signci  is  a  verb  (from  signo)  in  the  active  voice,  imperative  mode,  present 
tense,  second  person,  singular  number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  tn  under- 
stood. 

L'nii  is  a  numeral  adjective,  feminine  gender,  singular  number,  and  nomina- 
tive case,  qualifying  pilula. 

Piluld  is  a  feminine  noun  of  the  first  declension  in  the  singular  number  and 
nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  dctur. 

Dctur  is  a  verb  (from  do)  passive  voice,  subjective  mode,  present  tense,  third 
person,  singular  number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject,  pilula. 

Bis  is  an  adverb  modifying  detur. 

In  is  a  preposition  governing  die. 

Die  is  a  noun  of  the  fifth  declension,  masculine  (or  feminine)  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number  and  ablative  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  in. 


PRESCRIPTIONS.  3-;i 

A  prescription  may  be  divided  into  five  parts,  as  follows: 
(1)   The    superscription  =     Q.    For 

!Tinctune  Opii 3  i 
Syrupi 1  i 
Aqu?e  Cinnamomi |  i 

(3)  The  subscription,  i.  e. :   Misce. 

(4)  The  signa,  i.  c. :   Sig.   One  teaspoonful  every  hour. 
(o)   The  name  of  the  prescriber  and  the  date. 

The  superscription  consists  of  the  mark  \\  (an  abbreviation  of  the 
imperative  of  the  verbrecipio — recipe,  which  means  "takethou,")  and 
the  Name  of  the  patient.  The  latter  is  too  frequently  omitted.  A 
perfect  prescription  should  always  bear  the  name  of  the  person  whom 
the  medicine  is  intended  for,  and  if  for  a  child  it  should  be  so  desig- 
nated. 

The  inscription  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  prescription,  be- 
cause it  embraces  the  names  of  the  different  ingredients  and  their 
quantities,  which  are  written  in  the  genitive: 

IJ   Quininse  sulphatis — Take  of  quinine  sulphate. 

The  rule  is,  therefore,  that  every  word  in  the  inscription  must 
terminate  in  ^\Q  genitive. 

They  are  rarely  written  out  in  full,  however,  but  are  nearly  always  abbre- 
viated. In  the  case  of  words  having  the  first,  or  the  first  and  second,  sylla- 
bles the  same,  as,  for  example,  Hydrargyrum  and  Hydrastis,  the  abbreviation 
must  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  involve  doubt  as  to  what  substance  is  really 
wanted.  To  illustrate,  the  drugs  just  named  are  often  abbreviated  Hydr.. 
which  may  mean  either  of  them,  or.  when  followed  with  chlor.,  would  mean 
Chloral  Hydrate  (chloral),  but  might  also  be  mistaken  for  Hydrargyrum 
Chloridum;  both  Calomel  and  Mercuric  Chloride  (corrosive  sublimate)  being 
sometimes  very  improperly,  though  not  infrequently,  so  written.  In  such 
cases  the  dispenser  must  carefully  judge  what  article  is  intended  by  computing 
the  dose  and  from  a  consideration  of  the  other  ingredients. 

In  compounds  or  mixtures  the  ingredients  may  be  classified  from 
the  standpoint  of  prescribing  into:  (1)  The  base  or  active  constitu- 
ents, the  basis.  This  term  is  frequently  but  incorrectly  applied  to  the 
substances  employed  to  give  form  to  the  medicinal  agents.  The  basis 
of  the  prescription  must  be  the  active  constituent,  both  pharmaceuti- 
cally  and  therapeutically  considered, 

(2)  The  forming  substance.  This  is  variously  termed  according 
to  the  form  or  consistence  of  the  mixture:  For  liquids  and  ointments 
— rchitle,  i.  e. ,  syrup  and  petrolatum  respectively;  in  the  form  of 
powder — diluent,  i.  e.,  milk  sugar,  and  when  in  a  mass,  as  in  the  form 
of  ] 'ills  or  troches — excipient. 


392 


LANGUAGE 


(3)  The  corrective  is  the  addition  of  any  agent  which  modifies  the 
action   of  the  active  ingredient,  as,  for  example,  syrup  of  ginger  in 
some  mixtures,  or  capsicum  in  purgative  pills. 

(4)  Adjuvant  is  a  term  given  to  such  ingredients  as  may  be  added 
to  increase  the  action  of  the  base,  but  since  these  frequently  are  quite 
as  potent  as  the  principal  remedy,  the  distinction  is  rarely  made,  and 
not  here  considered.     These  divisions  are  illustrated  as  follows: 


Form. 

Base. 

Vehicle. 

Diluent. 

Excipient. 

Corrective. 

Liquid  ...... 

Potassii  iodidi  .  . 

Aquae. 

Tinct. 

Syrupi  .  . 

Zingiber. 

Powder  

Hydrargvri 

Sacchari 

chloridi  mite.  . 

lactis.  .  .  . 

fill  

Hydrargyri 

Pulvis 

Glvcerit. 

chloridi  corrosivi 

althaeae  . 

amyli  .  .  . 

Ointment.  .  .  . 

Zinci  oxidi  

Unguenti 

benzoini. 

The  subscription  consists  of  signs  or  terms  conveying  directions  as 
to  the  compounding  and  dispensing.  When  only  one  substance  is 
prescribed,  it  is  usually  omitted;  in  the  case  of  mixtures  of  liquids  or 
solutions,  the  mark  M,  or  misce  (mix),  is  generally  affixed. 

The  most  common  terms  employed  are,  abbreviated  : 


mix  and  make  a  solution, 
mix  and  strain  the  liquid, 
mix  and  make  a  powder, 
divide  in  papers  (No. — ) 
make  a  mass,  divide  in  pills, 
mix  and  make  an  ointment. 


M.  ft.  sol. 

M.  ft.-colat. 

M.  ft.  pulv. 

in  Chart,  divide 

M.  ft.  mass.  pil.  div. 

M.  ft.  ung. 

In  case  no  especial  directions  are  given,  the  pharmacist  must  employ  his  skill 
in  compounding  the  mixture,  that  not  only  will  the  full  medicinal  effects  be 
derived,  but  when  possible  also,  that  it  be  presented  in  the  most  agreeable  and 
palatable  form,  expressed  in  the  term  secundcin  artem. 

The  signa  or  the  directions  to  be  written  on  the  label  and  affixed  to 
the  package  or  container.  These  are  usually  written  in  English, 
though  sometimes,  especially  by  European  physicians,  in  Latin.  There 
is  no  good  reason  for  writing  the  directions  other  than  in  English, 
and  in  a  plain,  bold  hand-writing.  No  secrecy  is  here  necessary,  as  is 
sometimes  desirable  in  the  inscription.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may 
serve  as  a  check  on  any  errors  in  the  label  incident  to  dispensing. 
Abbreviated  terms  should  be  carefully  scrutinized  when  emploved, 
before  writing  the  label,  and  the  stereotyped  expression,  "Use  as 
directed,"  should  as  far  as  possible  be  avoided.  Many  serious  conse- 
quences might  have  been  averted  if  concise  directions  were  given. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


393 


The  following  Latin  terms,  more  or  less  abbreviated,  are  used  in 
the  directions: 


Bis  in  die. 

Capiat. 

Cochleare. 

Cochleare  magnum. 

Cochleare  medium. 

Cochleare  parvum. 

Da,  detur. 

Demur  tales  doses. 

Diebus  alternis. 

Diebus  tertiis. 

Dimidius. 

Donee. 

Durante  dolore. 

Ilarum  pilularum  sumantur 

tres 
Hora. 

Hora  somni. 
In  dies. 
Inter. 
Magnus. 

Mane,  mane  primo. 
Modo  prasscripto. 
More  dictu. 

Xe  tradas  sine  nummo. 
Nox,  noctis. 
Numerus. 
Omni  hora. 
Omni  bihorio. 
Omni  quadrantehorae. 
Omni  mane. 
Omni  nocte. 
Primus. 
Pro  re  nata. 
Quantum  libet  placet,  vis., 

volueris. 

Quaqua,  quaque. 
Semis. 
Septimana. 
Sesquihora. 
Statim. 
Ter. 

Ter  in  die,  ter  die. 
Ut  dictum. 
Utendum. 


Bis  in  d. 
Cap. 

Coch  ,  Cochl. 
Coch.  mag. 
Coch.  med. 
Coch.  parv. 
D. ,  dot. 
Dent.  tal.  dos. 
Dieb.  alt. 
Dieb.  tert. 
Dim. 


Har.  pil.  sum.  iii. 

II . 

H.  S.,  Hor.  Som. 

Ind. 

Int. 

Mag. 

Mod.  praescript. 
More  diet. 
Ne.  tr.  S.  num. 

No. 

Omn.  hor. 
Omn.  bihor. 
Omn.  quadr.  hor. 


P.  r.  n. 

Q-  i .  Q-  P-.  Q- 


Ss. 


Stat. 


T.  i.  d.,  t. 

Ut  diet. 
Utend. 


Twice  a  day. 

Let  him  (or  her)  take. 

A  spoonful. 

Tables  poonful. 

Dessertspoonful. 

Teaspoonful. 

Give,  let  be  given. 

Give  of  such  doses. 

Every  other  day. 

Every  third  day. 

One-half. 

Until. 

While  the  pain  lasts. 

Let    three   of   these   pills   be 

taken. 
An  hour. 
Before  retiring. 
From  day  to  day. 
Between. 
Large. 

In  the  morning. 
In  t'.ie  manner  prescribed. 
In  t!:e  manner  directed. 
Do  not  deliver  unless  paid. 
Night. 
Number. 
Every  hour. 
Every  tv.o  hours. 
Every  quarter  of  an  hour. 
Every  morning. 
Every  night. 
The  first. 
Occasionally. 
As  much  as  you  please. 

Each  or  every. 

A  half. 

A  week. 

An  hour  and  a  half. 

Immediately. 

Three  times. 

Three  times  a  day. 

As  directed. 

To  be  used. 


394  SIGNS. 

The  name  of  the  prescribcr  and  the  date  are  frequently  omitted,  or 
at  best,  the  former  is  given  in  initials  only. 

Since  pharmacists  are  usually  enabled  to  identify  the  prescriber  by  the  hand- 
writing, the  initials  often  suffice,  especially  since  blanks  with  printed  name, 
address  and  office  hours  are  to  a  great  extent  employed.  A  much  safer  plan, 
however,  is  to  write  the  name  in  full,  so  that  errors  may  be  avoided  in  writing 
the  label. 

The  date  should  be  affixed  at  the  time  of  dispensing  by  the  pharmacist,  so 
that  its  omission  is  of  little  importance. 

Signs  or  symbols  are  used  to  designate  quantities,  and  therefore  be- 
long to  the  inscription,  but  are  more  conveniently  treated  separately. 

Of  those  used  for  designating  Apothecaries'  weights,  the  "scruple"  and 
'  'pound"  are  going  rapidly  out  of  use.  For  liquids  the  signs  represent  only  U.  S. 
fluid  measures,  excepting  the  'drop,"  gutta,  plur.  giitlic,  abbreviated  "gtt.," 
which  is  too  indefinite  to  warrant  employment,  and  should  be  discarded  in 
favor  of  the  minim.  These  have  already  been  fully  described. 

The  quantities,  except  metric,  are  always  expressed  in  the  Roman 
numerals. 

The  numerals  i — one;  v — five;  x — ten;  1 — fifty;  C — one  hundred;  D  — five 
hundred  and  M — one  thousand,  are  the  basis  upon  which  this  system  is  con- 
structed It  has  a  symbol  for  each  decimal  unit;  also  one  for  its  first  aliquot 
division,  or  five  times  the  lowest  preceding  one  as  shown  above.  From  these 
the  intervening  numbers  are  constructed  by  placing  the  different  numerals  side 
by  side:  i=i;  v=5;  x=io;  vi=6;  xv=i5;  xvi=i6;  xx=2o;  xxvi=26. 

Xo  numeral  is  used  in  sequence,  however,  more  than  three  times,  below  one 
hundred;  a  higher  number  is  constructed  by  placing  the  next  lowest  units 
after  the  lower  one,  for  example:  iv=^;  ix=g;  xl=.jo;  XC=go.  Very  cautious 
prescribers,  it  may  be  added,  frequently  use  the  full  word  in  preference  to  any 
abbreviation. 

The  terms  and  abbreviations  in  metric  prescription  writing  were 
treated  under  the  Metric  Weights  and  Measures  in  Lecture  I. 

Signs  for  designating  the  measure  or  weight  of  the  mixture  are 
sometimes  affixed  to  the  last  ingredient;  of  these  the  most  important 
are: 

At/,  the  preposition  "to";  ad   §  vi— to  (measure)  four  fluid  ounces. 
Quantum  sufficiat,  or  quantum  satis,  usually  abbreviated  Q.  S.  orq.  s. 
— as  much  as  is  sufficient.      Of  these  q.  s.  should  always  be  preferred 
since  ad  is  susceptible  of  confusion  with  the  abbreviation  of  the  verb 
ad de,  to  add. 

Ana,  abbreviated  aa,  of  each,  is  appended  when  the  same  quanti- 
ties are  required  of  two  or  more  ingredients;  it  follows  the  last  of  these, 
preceding  the  quantity. 

Dcntur  tales  Doses  no. — Let  there  be  given  of  such  doses  number — , 
is  a  phrase  used,  especially  by  foreign  physicians,  to  designate  the 


SYMBOLS.  395 

number  of  powders  to  be  dispensed,  each  containing  the  quantities 
directed  in  the  inscription. 

Sic,  Sfaft'tn  or  the  exclamation  sign  (!)  after  the  quantity,  indicates 
that  the  dose  is  exceptionally  large,  but  that  the  prescriber  is  aware  of 
this  fact  and  directs  the  stated  quantity  for  special  reasons. 

The  more  general  adoption  of  signs  like  these  would  be  very  desira- 
ble, as  their  presence  is  exceedingly  reassuring  to  the  dispenser, 
when  powerful  remedies  are  prescribed;  the  first  mentioned,  sic,  should 
be  given  the  preference,  as  it  is  less  liable  to  be  confounded  for  a 
numeral,  than  the  exclamation  point  (!) 

THK    COMl'Ot.'NDINO    OF    I'RFSCKII'TIONS. 

The  compounding  of  prescriptions  is  the  most  responsible  duty  of 
the  pharmacist.  It  is  also  the  most  difficult  to  fulfil  properly,  because 
it  involves  not  only  professional  skill,  but  also  mature  judgment,  a 
cool  head  and  a  collected  mind. 

Probably  no  other  division  of  human  labor  makes  demands  simul- 
taneously upon  the  exercise  of  so  many  faculties  as  are  required  of 
the  pharmacist  in  the  compounding  of  prescriptions.  The  greatest 
care,  accuracy  and  skill  may  be  displayed  in  compounding  a  mixture, 
when,  in  a  moment  of  absent-mindedness,  an  error  may  be  committed 
in  writing  the  directions  on  the  label,  or  placing  the  wrong  label  on 
the  package,  or,  what  is  worse  still,  by  delivering  medicine  intended 
for  an  adult  in  place  of  that  for  an  infant. 

All  these  points  must  be  considered  in  the  dispensing  of  prescriptions,  and 
they  call  for  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  pharmacist.  Up<  n  the 
receipt  of  a  prescription  by  him  it  should  be  registered  as  a  sacred  trust,  that 
the  health  and  perhaps  the  life  of  his  patron  is  in  his  charge,  and  that  this 
obligation  is  not  discharged  until  he  sees  the  little  package,  in  which  a  fond 
mother's  loving  hope  may  be  involved,  safely  in  the  hands  of  the  proper  person. 
Greater  responsibilities  may  exist  in  other  professions  or  vocations,  involving 
t  h(;  care  of  a  greater  number  of  lives  and  property,  as  in  the  operation  of  means  of 
transportation,  but  errors  or  accidents  may  there  usually  be  avoided  by  atten- 
tion to  well-known  rules,  discipline,  etc.,  or  dependence  chiefly  upon  mechani- 
cal means.  In  the  dispensing  of  prescriptions,  skill,  rules  and  regulations  are 
of  little  avail  unless  accompanied  with  a  free  mind,  a  clear  head  and  an  acute 
perception  of  the  apparently  most  trivial  details.  In  this  branch  c>f  pharmacy 
the  price  of  safety  is  pre-eminently  eternal  vigilance! 

A  general  plan  of  procedure  in  "filling"  a  prescription  will  be  here 
outlined  in  the  uelief  that  adherence  to  it  will  reduce  the  chances  of 
error  to  a  minimum,  if  not  entirelv  exclude  them. 


390  PRESCRIPTION 

IX    RECEIVING    THK    PRESCRIPTION. 

(1)  Note  carefully  the  person  \vho  l)rings  it,  while  he   is  politely  re- 
quested to  be  seated. 

(2)  Glance  orer  the  prescription,  or   all  of  them  if  more   than  one, 
so  as  to  determine,  approximately,  the  length  of  time  required  to  com- 
plete them. 

(•T)  Inquire  whether  or  not  he  desires  to  wait,  to  have  it  delivered, 
or  to  call  for  it. 

(4)  j\fake  a  memorandum  accordingly,  and   in  case  it   is  not   to  be 
delivered,  or  called  for,  note  the  name  and  address,  unless   numbered 
checks  are  iised. 

To  prevent  confusion  the  only  safe  method  in  the  delivery  of  prescription 
medicines  is  to  mark  the  name  of  the  patient  on  the  prescription.  Numbered 
checks  may  become  lost  or  exchanged  by  children  when  several  are  waiting. 
While  sometimes  the  name  is  not  readily  learned,  still  it  is  the  only  certain 
plan  by  which  mistakes  in  delivery  may  be  entirely  prevented. 

(5)  Read  the  prescription  closely  and  deliberately,  especially  the  in- 
scription, making  meanwhile  a  mental  inventory  to  ascertain  if  the 
different  articles  are  in  stock  and  in  the  quantities  required.     In  case 
of  doubt  examine  the  container,  but  leave  it  in  its  place  until  wanted. 

(6)  Procure  the  container  of  proper  size  and  place  it  upon  the  pre- 
scription as  a  weight. 

If  a  bottle,  fit  it  with  a  long,  soft  cork,  squeezed  with  a  press  when 
necessary  until  it  admits  being  inserted  one-half  its  length;  the  other 
half  extending  facilitates  its  extraction  with  the  fingers.  The  repre- 
hensible practice  of  chewing  the  cork  should,  of  course,  not  be  tolerated. 

(7)  Procure  all  the  implements  necessary  for  the  operation,  spatula, 
mortar,  graduate,  etc.,  and  place  them  within  convenient  reach,  hav- 
ing previously  made  sure  that  they  are  clean. 

(8)  Procure  the  first  article  desired  for  incorporation  or  solution, 
and  weigh  or  measure  it  carefully. 

If  the  inscription  is  correctly  written  upon  the  prescription,  the  basis  or  active 
constituents  come  first,  and,  if  it  consists  of  several,  the  most  active  ingredient 
is  first  taken,  this  being,  in  any  event,  the  rule.  The  desired  quantity  having 
been  disposed  of,  the  container  is  stoppered,  the  name  on  the  label  read  delib- 
erately, and  then  placed  upon  the  desk  at  one  side  of  the  scale;  the  next  article 
in  order  of  quantity  or  compatibility  is  then  procured;  the  label  first  being  care- 
fully read,  the  required  quantity  is  obtained,  and  the  container  disposed  of  in 
the  same  way  as  the  first  and  placed  by  it. 

This  process  is  continued  until  all  the  articles  have  been  procured  and  the 
operation  is  finished.  With  very  bulky  preparations,  it  is  sometimes  incon- 
venient to  place  the  containers  on  the  counter,  and  this  may  perhaps  be  dis- 
pensed with. 


COMPOUNDING.  397 

WHEN    THE    COMPOUND    IS    FINISHED. 

(9)  Each  ingredient  ami  quantify  should    be  checked    DV  the   dis- 
penser or  an   assistant  on   the   prescription   from   the    containers  left 
standing  upon  the  counter. 

These  should  then  be  immediately  put  back  in  their  respective  places.  This 
operation  may  be  accelerated  by  the  aid  of  an  assistant.  Hut  no  move  must  be 
made  by  the  dispenser  with  any  other  work  until  the  package  is  labeled,  in 
order  that  mistakes  in  labeling  may  be  avoided. 

(10)  Any  additions  and  alterations  made  in   compounding  should 
be  explicitly  stated  upon  the  prescription,  so  that  in   case  of  renewal, 
the  preparation  shall  be  identical  with  that  originally  dispensed. 

The  kind  and  quantity  of  the  various  agents  employed  pharmaceutically. 
such  as  Excipients  for  pill-masses,  or  Emulsifying  agents,  are  not  infrequently 
ignored  by  the  physician,  who  leaves  their  selection  to  the  pharmacist.  For 
pharmaceutical  reasons  it  may  be  necessary  to  deviate  from  the  formula,  in  the 
character  or  quantity  of  the  Solvent,  or  to  make  alterations  in  the  Vehicle, 
Excipient  or  Diluent,  entailing  no  objections  therapeutical!}'.  This  must  never 
be  attempted,  however,  except  when  absolutely  necessary,  and  then,  when  pos- 
sible, only  with  the  consent  of  the  prescriber,  and  should  always  be  a,-eom+,i- 
nied  by  the  proper  memoranda  affixed  to  the  prescription. 

(11)  The  numbering  and  dating  of  the  prescription  is  next  in  order. 
Both  should  be  written  in  a  plain,  bold  handwriting. 

To  avoid  duplication,  or  errors  in  numbering,  various  devices  are  employed, 
the  most  satisfactory  being  the  "patent  dating  stamp,"  to  be  had  with  duplicate 
numbers  as  high  as  six  figures,  at  reasonable  cost.  An  inexpensive  device  may 
be  constructed  by  writing  consecutive  numbers  upon  long  strips  of  paper, 
one-half  inch  wide;  by  pasting  these  together  a  thousand  or  more  numbers  may 
be  rolled  upon  a  spool  in  a  box,  the  numbered  end  extending  through  a  .-'.it  in 
.the  side.  When  a  prescription  is  to  be  numbered,  a  number  is  cut  ulf  the  slip 
and  copied  on  the  prescription,  or  if  gummed  it  may  be  attached  to  it,  thus 
saving  writing  and  insuring  consecutive  numbers,  provided,  of  course,  that  the 
numbers  on  the  slips  have  been  written  correctly,  and  also  that  this  oper 
is  always  performed  when  a  prescription  is  to  be  numbered. 

U2)    Writing  the  label  should  be  done,  as   in   all  writing    pertainii 
to  pharmaceutical  work,  clearly  and  distinctly,  without  ilourisl 
breviation. 

In  writing  the  directions  the  nmnb'-rs  should  al \vays 
well  as  given  in  numerals;  for  example: 
Two  (2)  teaspoonfuls  every  three  (3)  hours. 
This  lessens  the  chance  for  error  by  the  patient. 
The  name  should  be  appended  whenever  it  can  be  learned. 
The  date  must  always  be  given,  as  through  it  a  pro.-, 
found  when  desired    for  repetition,  when   the   inn 
effaced.      In    the   absence  of  a   generally    accepte 
month  should  be  given  in  Roman,  the  date  in  Arabic 


398  DISPENSING. 

The  physician' s  name  should  always  be  written  in  full. 

(13)  Labeling  must  be  done  immediately  upon   the  finishing  of  each 
mixture  or  compound,  and  as  soon  as  the  label  is  written. 

When  two  or  more  prescriptions  are  received  for  compounding,  each  mixture 
should  be  so  completed  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  mistake  it  for  another.  This 
can  only  be  done  by  affixing  the  label  to  each,  before  work  is  commenced  on 
the  nexc  one.  In  case  two  liquids  are  prepared  'for  internal  and  external  use 
.respectively,  care  must  be  observed  that  the  labels  are  not  interchanged  on  the 
bottles,  since  mixtures  intended  for  external  application  usually  possess  dan- 
gerous properties  when  taken  internally. 

The  following  strip  labels  should  always  be  used  when  directed  upon  the 
prescription:  and  when  therein  omitted,  though  clearly  indicated,  should  be 
employed  with  proper  discretion: 

For  External  Use.      Shake  Well  Before  Using. 

The  injunction,  "for  external  use,"  to  the  public  conveys  the  impression  that 
the  mixture  must  be  used  only  outwardly  on  the  body,  and  that  it  does  not 
apply  to  eye-washes,  gargles,  injections,  etc.  While  this  definition  is  incorrect, 
it  is  best  to  avoid  confusion  by  the  employment  upon  these  of  the  label,  ''Not  to 
be  taken!" 

These  strip  labels  should  be  attached  a  bore  the  label  proper,  as  they  are  then 
more  conspicuous  than  when  appearing  below  it.  If  more  than  one  is  used  on 
the  same  bottle,  they  may  be  placed  alternately,  the  most  important  occupying 
the  most  conspicuous  position. 

(14)  The  wrapping  of  the  package  should  be  neatly  done,  after  which 
it  may  be  either   tied  with  twine,   or,    preferably,   the   ends  fastened 
together  with  red  sealing-wax;  black  wax  should  never  be  used,  owing 
to  the  superstition  of  some  persons  construing  its  employment  as  an 
evil  omen. 

This  is  also  true  in  scaling  the  cork  tops,  which  is  now  chiefly  done  with  the 
gummed  tops  in  various  bright  colors.  Capping  the  bottle  with  a  piece  of  glazed 
paper  is  an  exceedingly  attractive  manner  of  finishing  the  package,  and  is 
especially  to  be  commended'as  itassures  the  patient  that  the  contents  are  intact, 
when  procured  through  the  aid  of  a  messenger.  This  is  a  feature  practiced 
generally  on  the  Continent,  and  worthy  of  adoption  here. 

(15)  Iii  delivering  the  package,  care  must  be  observed  that  no  mis- 
take be  made  in  the  identity  of  the  medicine  or  of  the  purchaser. 

In  case  numbered  checks  are  not  used,  the  name  should  be  ascertained  by 
deliberate  questioning.  Verbal  instructions  should  as  far  as  possible  be  avoided, 
as  these  are  liable  to  cause  confusion,  reliance  being  placed  upon  the  instruc- 
tions upon  the  label.  On  the  other  hand,  any  inquiries  should  be  met  with  a 
clear  explanation,  that  the  customer  may  be  perfectly  satisfied. 


Extemporaneous  Compounding. 

Compounding,  or  the  combination  of  remedies,  more  commonly 
called  the  "mixing  of  medicines,"  is  that  division  of  dispensing  which 
involves,  besides  mechanical  skill,  also  the  application  of  pharmaceu- 
tical knowledge. 

The  compounding  of  official  preparations  has  been  described  under 
the  different  classes  of  these  already  treated;  unofficial  preparations 
belonging  to  these  classes  are  made  by  the  same  processes. 

Many  mixtures  are  compounded  as  needed — extemporaneously— 
and  of  these  some  are  not  even  stable,  or  lack  other  characteristics, 
which  render  necessary  especial  methods  for  their  preparation. 

Mixture,  in  a  pharmaceutical  sense,  is  a  term  applied  to  any  com- 
pound of  different  substances  mixed  or  brought  together  mechanically. 
These  may  be  either  liquid  or  solid,  and  in  the  former  is  frequently  a 
clear  solution. 

The  official  term,  mistura  (mixturej,  is  also  designed  to  indicate 
the  class  of  preparations  in  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  more  definite  compounds  or  solutions. 

The  employment  of  the  term  "mixture"  here  means  compounds,  or 
preparations,  not  official,  or  directed  to  be  nrepared  extemporan- 
eously. The  greatest  number  of  these  are  prescribed  by  physicians, 
and  are  therefore  treated  here  in  connection  with  the  compounding  of 
prescriptions. 

Care  should  be  observed  that  all  mixtures,  especially  solutions,  be 
made  to  appear  as  clear  and  inviting  as  possible. 

Solutions  of  salts,  or  mixtures  of  liquids,  should  always  be  strained 
through  a  piece  of  unbleached  muslin  before  they  are  dispensed,  when- 
ever the  matter  rejected  is  inert.  As  the  appearance  of  a  mixture  fre- 
quently depends  upon  the  method  employed  in  its  preparation,  the 
principal  points  to  be  observed  will  be  here  presented. 

In  compounding  liquid  mixtures,  the  most  active  constituent  or  base 
is  diluted  with  the  vehicle,  or  a  portion  of  it.  if  this  is  in  ex<x'-s 

If  it  contain  a  solid,  mixture  should  be  effected  either  1  ,  nr.-t  re- 
ducing the  solid  to  a  powder  in  a  mortar  and  triturating  with  the 
liquid,  or,  if  soluble,  when  necessary,  by  the  application  ot  heat  to  it. 
contained  in  a  test-tube  or  capsule.  The  substance  next  in  order  ot 

399 


|oo  EXTEMPORANEOUS. 

activity  should  then  be  added,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  de- 
composition or  change,  if  indicated  by  its  character. 

In  compounding  solids,  the  same  general  rule  should  be  observed, 
except  that  the  base  must  invariably  be  reduced  first  to  a  very  fine 
powder.  It  should  then  be  incorporated  with  a  portion  of  the  ex- 
cipient,  diluent  or  vehicle,  according  as  it  is  to  be  a  pill,  powder  or 
ointment,  until  a  perfectly  homogeneous  mixture  is  obtained.  It  is 
then  easily  mixed  with  the  remainder  of  the  forming  body,  the 
Vehicle,  to  which  have  been  added  other  active  constituents,  if  pres- 
ent, in  case  these  should  be  incompatible. 

The  following  mixtures  of  Solids  are  unofficial: 

FOR    INTERNAL    USE. 

Cachets. — Wafers— Consisting  of  two  concentric  halves  made  of  starch  en- 
closing the  drug  fastened  together  by  moisture.  Each  cachet  contains  one 
dose  and  is  to  be  immersed  in  water  immediately  before  being  swallowed. 

Capsules. — Made  of  Gelatin  consisting  of  two  parts  to  be  filled  with  solid  or 
liquid  (oil)  and  closed  with  a  tight-fitting  cap. 

LatnclLc. — Thin,  square  disks  of  glyco-gelatin  in  which  medicinal  agents  are 
in  solution. 

Pastilla. — Pastills — Lozenges  made  of  glyco-gelatin. 

Tabella. — Tablets — Triturates,  Disks  composed  of  Milk  Sugar  made  into  a 
paste  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  medicinal  substances  and  moulded  so  as  to 
weigh  about  i  grain. 

Linctus. — A  thick  medicated  syrup. 

Pasta. — Paste — Similar  to  confections. 

FOR  EXTERNAL  USE. 

Antiseptic  Bandages. — A  fabric  of  loose  texture — Cheese-cloth — saturated  in 
solutions  of  antiseptic  agents  in  water  or  alcohol  and  glycerin,  pressed  out  and 
made  into  rolls  ot  5  yards  and  wrapped  in  paraffined  paper  and  kept  in  air- 
tight packages.  The  strength  refers  to  the  peicentage  strength  of  the  solu- 
tion used. 

Bougies. — Pencil-shaped  Suppositories  for  medication  of  the  Urethra  or  air- 
passages. 

Insufflations. — Finely  powdered  substances  for  blowing  into  the  air-passages. 

The  directions  given  for  the  preparation  of  Emulsions,  Ointments, 
Pills,  etc.,  in  previous  Lectures  are  typical  of  these  classes,  and  should 
be  followed  in  extemporaneous  practice.  In  the  following,  only  ex- 
amples which  are  exceptions  to  the  general  methods  are  given 


Incompatibility. 


When  different  substances  are  brought  together  in  a  mixture,  be  it 
liquid  or  solid,  with  the  result  of  undergoing  a  more  or  less  complete 
change,  they  are  said  to  be  incompatible. 

This  does  not  apply  to  the  chemical  compounds,  or  even  to  some 
mixtures  where  the  resulting  change  produces  a  new  compound  or 
compounds  desired  for  use;  as,  for  example,  in  the  preparation  of 
Liquor  Ammonii  Acetatis  or  Mistura  Ferri  Comp.  Aside  from  this 
consideration,  substances  of  very  decided  incompatibility  are  often 
directed  to  be  mixed  intentionally  with  the  object  of  forming  a  new 
compound  or  compounds,  for  special  reasons. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  term  incompatibility  in  the  generally  accepted 
pharmacal  meaning,  is  not  always  clear,  and  not  invariably  indicative  of  imprac- 
ticable, unsafe,  or  otherwise  undesirable  combinations.  There  are  indeed  few 
instances  in  which  the  cause  of  incompatibility  in  a  mixture  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  well-known  chemical  principles,  and  with  these  could  also  be  explained,  were 
our  knowledge  sufficiently  complete. 

The  only  really  scientific  method  of  determining  the  incompatibility, 
or  the  contrary,  of  the  ingredients  of  a  mixture  is  a  correct  knowl- 
edge of  chemical  laws,  and  their  practical  application  in  pharmacy. 

For  the  purpose  of  practical  work  in  pharmacy,  and  especially  in 
that  pertaining  to  prescriptions,  a  generalization  may  be  attempted  by 
bringing  together  the  more  important  substances,  often  directed  to  be 
compounded. 

Incompatibility  may  be  distinguished  as  being  either  of  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  Chemical,  or  (2)  Pharmaceutical. 

Chemical  incompatibility  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  because  the 
change  is  usually  more  decided  between  chemical  compounds  than  be- 
tween preparations  of  vegetable  drugs,  the  latter  involving  chiefly  the 
solubility  of  their  constituents,  their  mechanical  suspension  or  other 
physical  treatment. 

The  most  common  forms  of  chemical  incompatibility  occur  under 
the  following  conditions: 

(1)    When   the   solutions   of  two  salts   are  mixed,  resulting   in  the 
formation  of  a  new  salt,  which,  being  insoluble,  precij  itates: 
IJ      Plumbi  Acetatis,  Zinci  Sulphatis  .    . 

Aqux  Rosre 

M.  et  S.     Shake  well  and  use  as  an  injection. 


402  INCOMPATIBILITY. 

Here  the  prescriber  desires  to  exhibit  Lead  Sulphate,  in  its  freshly  prepared 
state,  and  directs  it  to  be  formed  by  double  decomposition  between  the  two 
salts,  Lead  Acetate  and  Zinc  Sulphate.  The  Sulphuric  Acid  radical  having 
greater  attraction  for  the  Lead,  leaves  its  own  base  and  combines  with  the  Lead, 
forming  Lead  Sulphate,  while  the  weak  acid,  Acetic,  being  displaced,  com- 
bines with  the  Zinc,  forming  Zinc  Acetate,  which  remains  in  solution.  The 
Lead  Sulphate  being  insoluble  is  precipitated  as  a  dense,  white  powder,  but 
upon  shaking  the  mixture,  it  is  temporarily  suspended,  hence  the  necessity  of 
directing  the  bottle  "to  be  shaken"  when  the  contents  are  to  be  used. 

A  similar  decomposition  of  two  soluble  salts  may,  however,  under 
certain  conditions  not  always  be  desired,  or,  in  fact,  not  suspected,  as 
illustrated  in  the  following: 

5      Quininae  Sulphatis gr.  xx 

Potassii  Acetatis gr.  xxx 

Acidi    Sulphurici  diluti m.   x 

Aquae f.  1    iss 

Syrupi f.  3    iv 

M.  et  S.     One  dessertspoonful  every  three  (3)  hours. 
In  compounding  the  above,  the  Quinine  Sulphate  is  dissolved  in  a  portion  of 
the  Water,  by  the  aid  of  the  Acid,  and  added  to  the  Potassium  Acetate,  pre- 
viously dissolved  in  the  remainder  of  Water,  the  Syrup  being  added  last. 

Upon  the  two  solutions  being  mixed,  the  acids  exchange  their  bases,  result- 
ing in  the  formation  of  Potassium  Sulphate  and  Quinine  Acetate,  the  former 
remaining  in  solution,  while  the  quinine  salt,  being  almost  insoluble,  is  sus- 
pended in  the  liquid.  It  is  not  precipitated,  as  is  the  case  in  the  first  example, 
owing  to  its  bulk  and  light  weight,  but  remains  permanently  suspended  in  the 
liquid,  giving  to  the  mixture  a  consistence  which  prevents  it  from  being  poured, 
Quinine  sulphate  being  almost  insoluble  in  water,  its  solution  is  effected  by 
converting  it  into  the  much  more  soluble  Bisulphate  by  the  addition  of  Acid, 
but  the  latter  also  combines  with  the  Potassium  and  hence  does  not  prevent 
the  formation  of  the  almost  insoluble  salt. 

(-2)  With  solutions  of  salts  of  weak  or  volatile  acids,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  strong  acid,  when  decomposition  results. 

Several  official  preparations  and  other  mixtures  are  prepared  extem- 
poraneously, by  decomposing  an  alkaline  carbonate  with  an  acid,  such 
as  acetic,  citric  or  tartaric  acids.  The  Solutions  of  Ammonium  Ace- 
tate, Magnesium  Citrate  and  Sodium  Tartrate  are  good  illustrations. 
The  carbonic  acid  of  the  respective  carbonates  is  easily  displaced 
by  the  acids  mentioned,  and,  being  volatile,  escapes,  though  a  portion 
of  it  may  be  retained  in  the  solution  if  kept  in  a  closed  vessel. 

In  these  the  decomposition  is  intentional,  and  since  definite  compounds  in  an 
eligible  form  are  produced,  the  solutions  can  not  be  regarded  as  incompatible 
mixtures.  But  in  the  case  of  many  pharmaceutical  preparations  containing 
acids,  i,  e. ,  Vinegars,  and  especially  who::  viscid,  as,  for  example,  the  Syrups  of 


CHEMICAL.  403 

Allium  and  Squills,  which  are  prepared  from  the  vinegars;  or  of  some  Fluid 
Extracts,  such  as  that  of  Uva  Ursi,  the  addition  of  an  alkaline  carbonate  pro- 
duces effervescence  and  sometimes  explosion.  Such  mixtures  should  be  pre- 
pared by  adding  the  vehicle  to  the  solution  of  the  salt  in  a  mortar,  under  constant 
stirring.  The  thinner  the  liquid  the  more  quickly  will  the  gas  escape,  hence 
the  solution  should  be  diluted  with  as  much  water  as  is  permissible. 

(:5)  Salts  of  a  feeble  or  volatile  base  are  decoinjx>sed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  strong  alkali. 

Examples  of  this  are  rare;  it  may  be  illustrated  in  the  evolution  of  ammonia, 
when  a  strong  alkali  is  added  to  ammonia-alum  and  in  the  decomposition  of 
Chloral  Hydrate  by  alkalies. 

(4)  Alkaloids,  by  the  addition  of  alkalies  or  alkaline  salts,  are 
tin  own  out  of  solution  or  precipitated  from  solutions  of  their  more 
soluble  salts. 

The  Alkaloids,  with  but  few  exceptions,  are  nearly  insoluble  in  Water, 
but  their  Salts,  such  as  the  Acetates,  Hydrochlorates  and  Sulphates  are  com- 
paratively soluble  in  Water  and  other  neutral  or  acid  liquids.  They  are, 
moreover,  very  powerful  medicinally,  and  hence  administered  in  very  small 
quantities,  so  that  the  alkali  Salts,  usually  prescribed  in  much  greater  propor- 
tion than  the  alkaloid  Salts,  may  abstract  the  acid  from  the  alkaloidal  base, 
with  the  result  of  throwing  the  almost  insoluble  base  out  of  solution.  Or  what 
is  more  frequently  the  case,  even  if  the  alkaloid  be  soluble  as  a  base  in  the 
neutral  liquid,  the  alkalinity  of  the  mixture  is  sufficient  to  precipitate  it. 

It  is  a  general  rule  that  Alkaloids  are  precipitated  by  Alkalies.  Illustra- 
tions may  be  mentioned  of  mixtures  containing  Strychnine  Sulphate  and  Potas- 
sium Bromide,  the  latter  in  much  the  largest  proportion,  and  similar  prepara- 
tions. The  Alkaloids  and  their  Salts  are  also  incompatible  with  those  chemical 
compounds  with  which  they  produce  characteristic  reactions.  (See  Alkaloids.) 

(."))  Iron  and  many  of  its  compounds,  upon  the  addition  of  Tan- 
nic  Acid  and  preparations  containing  it.  C.allic  Acid,  or  other  vege- 
table Acids,  produce  a  discoloration  or  precipitation. 

This  is  a  common  form  of  incompatibility  rind  is  illustrated,  when  intention- 
ally employed,  in  the  preparation  of  ink;  this  discoloration  of  mixtures  is  alsc 
often  termed  "inky."  Many  examples  might  be  given,  but  since  nearlv  :<!' 
vegetable  drugs  contain  more  or  less  of  these  acids,  their  preparations  rfre  often 
discolored,  when  mixed  with  iron  compounds. 

The  discoloration  may  be  prcrcnti\l  by  employing  ccrt.iin  iron 
preparations,  or  compounds  of  these  with  other  salts,  i.  e. .  ammonium 
or  sodium  citrate.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with  preparations  ot 
drugs  not  containing  tannic  or  gallic  acids,  but  some  other  vegetable 
acid,  similar  to  these  in  being  discolored  by  iron. 

The  most  familiar  illustration  of  th.s  is  the  formula  for  Kliv.r  Cie;. 
tian  with  Tincture  Chloride  of  Iron,  X.  F. 

Here  the  familiar  discoloration  of  the  gentisic  acid  with  the  tincture  of  iron 
chloride  is  prevented  by  the  use  of  another  compound  of  iron  as  above  in 
dicated. 


404  PHARMACEUTICAL. 

PHARMACEUTICAL     INCOMPATIBILITY. 

The  production  of  more  or  less  insoluble  substances  in  mixtures  or 
preparations  asbociated  or  not  with  chemical  change,  is  termed  •phar- 
maceutical incompatibility. 

Pharmaceutical  incompatibility  is  largely  a  question  of  solubility 
and  therefore  requires  for  its  understanding  a  knowledge  of  the  be- 
havior of  substances  to  various  solvents;  the  degree  of  solubility  of  the 
many  salts  and  chemical  compounds  as  well  as  the  reactions  these 
produce  with  pharmaceutical  products  and  preparations.  While  these 
are  usually  not  as  marked  as  are  the  reactions  between  chemical  com- 
pounds they  frequently  result  in  the  formation  of  insoluble  com- 
pounds, which  should,  whenever  possible,  be  prevented  without  affecting 
the  therapeutic  properties  of  the  mixture. 

In  liquid  Mixtures,  incompatibility  is  most  frequently  due  to  a 
change  in  the  vehicle  or  solvent,  by  the  addition  of  one  solution  to 
another  causing  separation  of  inert,  or  active,  constituents. 

When  the  separation  is  of  inert  constituents  only  these  should  be 
removed  by  straining  or  filtration;  when  of  active  constituents  their 
separation  may  often  be  prevented  or  at  least  greatly  lessened  by 
either  of  the  following  methods: 

By  dilution;  the  greater  the  extent  of  dilution  the  less  the  danger 
from  precipitation. 

Preparations  of  drugs  containing  oils,  resin  or  oleoresin,  made  with  alco- 
holic menstrua,  precipitate,  or  cause  turbidity,  when  mixed  with  aqueous  mix- 
tures, or  those  containing  only  small  proportions  of  alcohol.  But  by  diluting  a 
tincture,  or  a  spirit  of  these,  with  less  than  its  measure  of  diluted  alcohol,  it 
may  often  be  added  to  watery  solutions  or  mixtures,  without  producing  precipi- 
tation if  not  turbidity. 

By  suspension;  the  greater  the  density  or  viscosity  of  the  liquid, 
the  less  the  danger  of  change  or  precipitation. 

With  many  mixtures,  dilution  can  not  be  practiced;  in  such  cases  recourse  is 
had  to  suspension,  by  means  of  intervention,  through  some  inert  substance. 
The  best  general  agent  to  serve  this  purpose  is  acacia.  Preparations  of  the 
class  above  described,  resinous  drugs,  etc.,  can  be  mixed  with  watery  solutions 
to  which  some  acacia,  either  in  the  form  of  powder  or  mucilage,  has  previously 
been  added,  by  trituration  in  a  mortar;  care  must  be  observed,  that  the  percent- 
age of  alcohol  in  the  finished  mixture  be  not  so  great  as  to  precipitate  the 
acacia. 

Solubility  must  always  be  considered  in  all  solutions  or  liquid  mix- 
tures. In  simple  solutions,  the  active  constituents  may  be  directed 
in  larger  quantity  than  soluble  in  the  liquid. 

Solutions  are  called  supersaturated  when   they   are  saturated  solu- 


INCOMPATIBILITY.  405 

lions  at  a  temperature  higher  than  the  ordinary  and  therefore 
the  excess  of  solid  will  be  thrown  out  of  solution  when  the  liquid  as- 
sumes the  normal  temperature. 

In  dispensing  mixtures  directing  a  greater  proportion  of  solid  than  soluble  io 
the  liquid,  as  in  the  case  of  a  salt,  Potassium  Chlorate,  for  example,  it  should  be 
added  in  the  form  of  powder  and  the  mixture  directed  to  be  shaken  while  being 
used  It  may  be  a  liquid  and  differ  in  specific  gravity  from  the  vehicle,  in 
which  case  the  excess  will  either  float  upon  the  latter,  as  with  a  mixture  of  Car- 
bolic Acid  and  Water,  or  of  Chloroform  and  Water,  remain  in  a  stratum  at  the 
bottom.  In  the  first  instance  *he  addition  of  a  little  Glycerin  will  aid  the  solu- 
tion of  the  Carbolic  Acid. 

It  may  be  more  complicated,  and  a  powerful,  or,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing case,  an  exceedingly  poisonous  remedy  may  be  extracted  from  the 
mixture  by  the  separated  liquid,  because  of  being  easily  soluble  in  the 
latter: 

Q     Tincturae  Nucis  Vomicae f  3  n 

Chloroformi f3  ii 

Aqiuie     . q.  s.  ff   iv 

M.  et  S. 

Upon  standing,  this  mixture  separates,  the  Chloroform  sinking  to  the  bot- 
tom, carrying  a  portion  of  the  active  principles  of  the  Nux  Vomica  with  it.  The 
last  dose  may  contain  a  poisonous  quantity,  and  great  caution  must  be  observed 
in  compounding  prescriptions  of  this  class. 

With  Solids,  when  different  substances  are  acted  upon  when  mixed, 
dilution  often  prevents  undesirable  changes. 

In  preparing  ointments,  pills  and  suppositories,  care  should  be  observed  that 
active  medicinal  substances,  when  of  such  character,  are  each  diluted  with  the 
vehicle,  or  excipient,  before  they  be  mixed  together,  Tannic  Acid  is  often 
directed  to  be  prepared  in  ointment,  or  suppository,  with  Extract  of  Belladonna, 
with  which  it  forms  an  insoluble  compound.  But  when  each  active  constituent 
is  first  incorporated  with  a  portion  of  the  vehicle,  Lard  or  Oil  Theobroma,  nc 
change  takes  place  when  mixec1,  and  a  smooth  and  active  preparation  is  easily 
produced. 

Incompatibility  may  sometimes  be  both  chemical  %&&  pharmaceutical. 

Illustrations  of  this  are  frequently  found  in  mixtures  containing 
Quinine,  associated  with  some  chemical  compound,  or  acid,  and  a 
vehicle;  which  is  decomposed  by  the  latter,  as  in  following: 

J£     Quininoe  Sulphatis 4. 

Ammonii  Chloridi •>. 

Elixir  Glycyrrhixai  aromatic! 150. 

M.  et  S. 

Here  a  reaction  takes  place  between  the  two  salts,  with  the  effect  of  throw- 
ing the  active  principle  of  the  Glycyrrhiza,  glycyrrhizin,  out  of  solution.  The 
same  change  occurs  when  diluted  Sulphuric  Acid  is  used,  and  a  clear  mixture 


Tannic j 


406  INCOMPATIBILITIES. 

can  only  be  obtained  by  leaving  out  !he  liquorice.  Quinine  can  be  eligibly  ex- 
hibited, in  liquid,  either  suspended  in  a  viscid  liquid,  such  as  syrup  of  glycyr- 
rhiza,  in  alcoholic  solution, or,  in  solution,  by  the  aid  of  acids;  a  compromise  be- 
tween these,  when  in  large  doses  at  least,  is  rarely  desirable. 

In  the  following  list,  the  substances,  which  can  not  be  classed  as 
Incompatible  under  any  of  the  above  divisions,  are  given  for  reference: 

SUBSTANCE.  INCOMPATIBLE  WITH 

.       .  j  Alcohol,  alcoholic  and  ethereal  Tinctures;*  Borax;  Ferric 

Act  'ia j  chloride;  Lead  salts. 

Acids,  in  general. . .  <j  Alkalies,  Alkaline  solutions;  Metallic  Oxides. 

Acid  Arsenous \  Ferric  Hydrate;  Magnesia;  Lime  water. 

Salicylic \  Iron  compounds;  Potassium  iodide;*  Lime  water. 

Alkalies,      carbonates    and    bicarbonates;    Lime    water; 
Chlorine  water;  Albumen;  Gelatin. 

Bismuth  j  Calom  j   Sulphur;  Tannin 

Submtrate  . . . .  ( 

Chloral  j  Alkalies,    carbonates;*  Ammonium    and  Mercury    corn- 
Hydrate  |  pounds;  Potassium  bromide  and  Alcohol. 

(  Ammonia;*  Alkalies,  carbonates;  Chloral;  Metallic  salts: 

MiKf (Starch.* 

r      r  (  Acacia;  Acid  Hydrochlor;  Acid  Sulphuric  and  sulphates; 

7(  '  •<  Ammon.    chloride;    Carbonates;     Lime    water;    Iodine; 

te f  Potassium  iodide;  Tannin. 

-  Potassium  iodide;*  Salts,  carbonates;  Tannin,  Borax. 
Bichloride / 

.,..  ,  „,  ,     .  ,       i  Acids,  acid  salts;  Alkalies,  carbonates;  Ammon.  chloride; 

MJ1?  |-  -   Iodine;  Potassium    iodide;    Ferric  chloride,    iodide;  Sul- 

(Calomel)...^phur_ 

Potassium  j  Acj^s   mineral;  Calomel;  Organic  substances;  Sulphur. 

Chlorate { 

,.,  (  Acids,   acid  salts;   Alkaloids;    Iron;   Lead    and    Mercury 
j  salts;  Potassium  chlorate;  Silver  nitrate;  Chlorine  water. 

(  Ammonia,      salts;      Alcohol;    Glycerin;      Ethereal    oils; 
Permanganate,  -j  Qrganic  substances. 

•I  Acids,  acid  salts;  Acid  Tannic;  Alkaloids;   Metallic  salts. 
Bicarbonate. . .  ( 

Bromide •{  Acids,  mineral;  Chlorine  water;  Mercury  compounds. 

_..  i  Acids  Acetic,  Hydrochloric,  Hydrocyanic,  Sulphuric,  Tar- 

'.  -  taric,     and     their    salts;    Alkalies,     Carbonates;    Iodine; 

te /  Potass,  iodide,  bromide;  Sulphur. 

Those  marked  with  an*  are  sometimes  directed  to  be  compounded  for  the 
purpose  of  effecting  some  especial  change  or  producing  new  compounds. 


AUG  3  0  1982 


BdATEDUE 


3  1970  00691  5943 


I    001  211  038 


